(liiilit  iiniiiiiil  iitiiiliimiiiiiHluHnitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiHiitliuui^ 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 


DR.  WILL  C.  CRAWFORD 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/educationaladminOOstraiala 


EDUCATIONAL   ADMINISTRATION 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    nOSTON   ■    CHICAGO 
DALLAS    •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


EDUCATIONAL    ADMINISTRATION 
QUANTITATIVE   STUDIES 


BY 

GEORGE    DRAYTON    STRAYER 
AND 

EDWARD    L.    THORNDIKE 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


53'em  fork 
THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1913 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  191 3. 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPAJ^Y 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  March,  i9i3. 


PRKSS   OK  T.    MOREV  &    SON, 
(ilSKKSHKLI),  MASS.,  U.  S.  A. 


lAorary 

Lb 

30/1 

PREFACE 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  enable  students  of  education 
to  learn  some  of  the  methods  and  results  of  recent  scientific  studies 
of  school  administration.  Teachers  of  education  in  universities 
feel  the  need  of  supplementing  students'  acquaintance  with  the 
common-sense  principles  of  school  management  by  some  study  of 
impartial  and  exact  investigations  which  carry  knowledge  beyond 
conventional  opinions,  no  matter  how  sagacious. 

At  present  they  must,  to  do  this,  rely  solely  upon  lectures  or 
require  students  to  read  long,  technical  and  highly  speciilized 
reports  of  original  investigations,  access  to  which  is  often  difficult, 
especially  in  the  case  of  large  classes. 

The  selections  quoted  or  summarized  in  this  volume  are  delib- 
erately chosen  from  the  work  that  has  been  done  at  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University,  in  the  appUcation  of  quantitative 
methods  to  administrative  problems.  This  seemed  best  for  two 
reasons.  The  contents  of  the  volume  have  thus  a  natural  unity 
of  purpose,  method  and  subject  matter.  The  likeUhood  is  thereby 
increased  that  similar  volum.es  will  be  prepared  adapting  for 
students'  use  the  work  done  by  other  natural  groups  of  investi- 
gators. 


8548G9 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

STUDIES  OF  THE  STUDENTS 

SECTION  PAGE 

1.  Enrollment  in  Relation  to  Age  and  Grade 3 

2.  The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School 9 

3.  Promotion,  Retardation,  and  Elimination. 26 

4.  The  Incidence  of  Retardation 37 

5.  The  Causes  of  Retardation  and  Acceleration 41 

6.  The  Causes  of  Elimination 46 

7.  The  Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade 54 

8.  The  Social  and  Ecomonic  Status  of  Pupils 69 

PART  II 

STUDIES  OF  THE  TEACHING  STAFF 

9.  The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching 77 

10.  The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Teachers loo 

11.  The  Supervision  of  Special  Subjects 107 

12.  The  Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  the  United  States 113 

13.  The  Influence  of  the  Sex  Balance  of  the  Teaching  Staff  upon  High 

School  Enrollment 132 

PART  III 

STUDIES  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  SCHOOLS 
AND   COURSES  OF  STUDY 

14.  The  Elementary  School  Curriculum 140 

15.  Size  of  School  as  a  Conditioning  Factor  in  Secondary  Education.  . . .    105 

16.  The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations 176 

17.  The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree 188 

vii 


viii  Contents 

PART  IV 

MEANS  OF  MEASURING   EDUCATIONAL  PRODUCTS 

SECTION  PAGE 

i8.  Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products 207 

19.  School  Achievement  in  Arithmetic 233 

20.  School  Achievement  in  Terms  of  Methods  of  Work 241 

21.  School  Records  and  Reports 250 

PART  V 

SCHOOL  FINANCE 

22.  City  School  Expenditures 267 

23.  Expenditures  for  Schools  in  Relation  to  Other  Municipal  Expendi- 

tures   352 

24.  The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 368 

STATISTICAL  TABLES 

table  page 

1 .  Age-grade  table  for  Connecticut 4 

2.  Table  i  rearranged 6 

3.  Age  distribution  in  three  cities 16 

4.  Age  distribution  for  twenty-five  cities 17 

5.  Frequency  of  failures  of  promotion 29 

6.  Failures  of  promotion  by  grades 37 

7.  Failures  of  promotion  by  grades 38 

8.  Failures  of  promotion  by  grades 38 

9.  Failures  of  promotion  by  grades 39 

10.  Accelerated  and  retarded  pupils  compared 41 

11.  Accelerated  and  retarded  pupils:  hereditary  relationships 44 

12.  Individual  differences  in  reasoning  ability 65 

13.  Monthly  rentals  of  families  of  high  school  pupils 73 

14.  Table  of  regrouping  for  comparison  of  grades 80 

15.  Teaching  efficiency  in  relation  to  experience 81 

16.  Teaching  eflBciency  in  relation  to  experience 81 

17.  Teaching  efficiency  in  relation  to  experience 82 

18.  Salaries  of  teachers  of  equal  education  according  to  amount  of  experience.  .  .  88 

19.  Salaries  of  teachers  of  equal  education  according  to  amount  of  experience. .  .  90 

20.  Salaries  of  teachers  of  equal  education  according  to  amount  of  experience. .  .  91 


Statistical  Tables  ix 

TABLE  PAGE 

21.  The  relation  of  salary  to  experience:  men 95 

22.  The  relation  of  salary  to  experience:  women 96 

23.  Race  and  nativity  of  American  women  teachers loi 

24.  Parental  occupation  of  men  teachers lot 

25.  Parental  occupation  of  women  teachers 101 

26.  Summary  of  tables  24  and  25 i02 

27.  Relation  of  occupation  of  parents  of  teachers  to  parental  income 102 

?8.  Relation  of  number  of  brothers  and  sisters  to  the  occupation  of  parents  of 

teachers 102 

29.  Relation  of  parental  income  to  the  years  of  training  of  men  teachers 103 

30.  Relation  of  parental  income  to  the  years  of  training  of  women  teachers 103 

31.  Relation  of  parental  income  to  beginning  age  for  men  teachers 104 

32.  Relation  of  parental  income  to  beginning  age  for  women  teachers 104 

33.  Percentages  of  cities  employing  supervisors  of  sjjecial  subjects 108 

34.  Distribution  by  sex  of  supervisors  of  special  subjects  (1908) 109 

35.  Differences  in  the  division  of  responsibility no 

36.  Median  annual  salaries  of  supers'isors  of  special  subjects  (1908) in 

37.  Experience  in  teaching:  secondary  school  teachers 127 

38.  Salaries  of  public  and  private  school  teachers  compared •. . . .  131 

39.  The  sex  balance  in  high  schools 133 

40.  The  sex  balance  in  high  schools 134 

41.  The  sex  balance  in  high  schools 139 

42.  Changes  in  the  sex  balance  in  high  schools 142 

43.  Changes  in  the  sex  balance  in  high  schools 143 

44.  Changes  in  the  sex  balance  in  high  schools 143 

45.  Time  allotment  in  elementary  schools:  American  schools 152 

46.  Time  allotment  in  elementary  schools:  American  schools 152 

47.  Time  allotment  for  New  York  City:  1868,  1888,  1904 154 

48.  Time  allotment  for  St.  Louis:  1868,  1888,  1904 155 

49.  Time  allotment:  English  cities 156 

50.  Time  allotment:  English  cities 157 

51.  Time  allotment:  German  cities 158 

52.  Time  allotment:  German  cities 159 

53.  Time  allotment:  American  cities  (1911) 160 

54.  Time  allotment  for  arithmetic  and  algebra 161 

55.  Time  allotment  for  arithmetic  and  algebra  (1890  and  191 1) 161 

56.  The  order  in  the  course  of  specified  topics  in  arithmetic 162 

57.  Time  allotment  for  geography  (191 1) 162 

58.  Time  allotment  for  manual  training  (191 1) 163 

59.  Frequency  of  different  sizes  of  teaching  staff  in  American  high  schools.  .  .  168 

60.  Frequency  of  different  sizes  of  student  body  in  American  high  schools.  .  .  169 

61.  Relation  of  size  of  high  school  to  public  support  by  States 172 


Statistical  Tables 


TABLE  PAGE 

62.  Relation  of  standing  in  entrance  examination  to  standing  in  college  (Senior 

year) 186 

63.  Relation  of  standing  in  entrance  examination  to  standing  in  college  (Junior 

year) 186 

64.  Relation  of  standing  in  entrance  examination  to  standing  in  college  (Sopho- 

more year) 187 

65.  Relation  of  standing  in  entrance  examination  to  standing  in  college  (Fresh- 

man year) 187 

66.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Bowdoin) 190 

67.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Columbia) 191 

68.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Cornell) 192 

69.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Harvard) 193 

70.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Princeton) 194 

71.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Stanford).  .  .  /» 195 

72.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Wellesley) 196 

73.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Wesleyan) 197 

74.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Williams) 198 

7$.  Studies  actually  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree  (Yale) 199 

76.  The  frequency  of  specialization 201 

77.  The  frequency  of  scattering 202 

78.  Preliminary  tests  in  arithmetic 234 

79.  Scores  of  twenty-six  systems  in  arithmetical  problems 236 

80.  Scores  of  twenty-six  systems  in  arithmetical  computations 236 

81.  The  relation  of  achievement  in  arithmetic  to  time  allotment 237 

82.  The  relation  of  achievement  in  arithmetic  to  time  allotment 238 

83.  The  relation  of  achievement  in  arithmetic  to  time  allotment 238 

84.  The  distribution  of  teachers'  salaries 259 

85.  Sample  age-grade  table 260 

86.  Sample  attendance  table 261 

87.  Analyzed  budgets  in  percentages 278 

88.  Itemized  cost  per  pupil 279 

89.  Itemized  cost  per  pupil 283 

90.  Itemized  cost  per  pupil 287 

91.  Itemized  cost  per  pupil 288 

92.  Variability  in  cost  of  education 293 

93.  Variations  among  cities  in  the  several  items  of  the  budget 296 

94.  Variation  among  cities  in  the  several  items  of  the  budget 297 

95.  Variation  among  cities  in  the  several  items  of  the  budget 297 

96.  Variation  among  cities  in  the  several  items  of  the  budget 300 

97.  Variation  among  cities  in  the  several  items  of  the  budget 301 

98.  Variation  among  cities  in  the  several  items  of  the  budget 303 

99.  Measures  of  variability 313 


Statistical  Tables  xi 


TABLE  PAGE 

ICX3.  The  relation  between  amount  spent  for  salaries  of  janitors  and  for  teaching 

and  supervision 314 

loi.  City  expenditures  in  terms  of  deviations  from  the  central  tendency 321 

102.  City  expenditures  in  terms  of  deviations  from  the  central  tendency 322 

103.  General  tendencies  in  school  budgets 325 

104.  Fiscal  relations 328 

105.  Variations  in  total  cost  related  to  the  amount  of  separate  items  in  the 

school  budget 330 

106.  Fiscal  relations 334 

107.  Fiscal  relations 334 

108.  The  stability  of  the  various  items  of  the  budget 337 

109.  Fiscal  relations 339 

no.  The  salaries  of  teachers  and  the  cost  of  living 341 

111.  The  salaries  of  teachers  and  the  cost  of  living 342 

112.  Fiscal  relations 342 

113.  Expense  in  relation  to  enrollment 346 

1 14.  Analyzed  city  budgets 354 

115.  Analyzed  city  budgets 358 

116.  Variability  in  city  budgets 358 

117.  Variability  in  city  budgets 359 

1 18.  Variability  in  city  budgets 360 

119.  Variability  in  city  budgets 360 

120.  Relations  of  various  items  of  city  budgets 361 

121.  Relations  of  various  items  of  city  budgets 361 

122.  Relations  of  various  items  of  city  budgets 361 

123.  Relations  of  various  items  of  city  budgets 362 

124.  Relations  of  various  items  of  city  budgets 363 

1 25.  Variability  in  city  revenues 365 

126.  Distribution  of  ratios  of  school  expenses  to  population 366 

127.  Distribution  of  total  city  expenses 367 

1 28.  Distribution  of  expenses  for  police 367 

129.  Wealth  of  Massachusetts  counties  per  census  child  five  to  fifteen 373 

130.  Tax  rate  and  amount  of  money  produced  per  pupil 374 

131.  Valuation  per  census  child  and  per  school  for  Fairfield  County,  Connecti- 

cut   375 

132.  Inequalities  existing  in  the  State  of  Missouri 376 

133.  Inequalities  existing  in  the  State  of  California 377 

134.  The  tax  rate  necessary  to  produce  $250  by  local  taxation 377 

135.  A  comparison  of  wealth,  tax  rate  and  cost  of  schools  by  counties 378 

136.  The  relation  of  the  number  of  teachers  and  of  children  to  the  whole  popula- 

tion   379 

137.  The  state  apportionment  in  relation  to  enrollment 379 


xii  Statistical  Tables 


TABLE  PAGE 

138.  The  value  of  census  apportionment  on  the  basis  of  enrollment 380 

139.  Various  plans  of  apportionment 380 

140.  Various  plans  of  apportionment 381 

141.  Various  plans  of  apportionment 381 

142.  Various  plans  of  apportionment 382 

143.  Apportionment  on  census  and  on  teachers  compared 383 

144.  Apportionment  on  census  and  on  teachers  compared 383 


PART  I 
STUDIES  OF  THE  STUDENTS 


EDUCATIONAL  ADMINISTRATION 

§  I.  Enrollment  in  Relation  to  Age  and  Grade 

Two  of  the  very  easiest  facts  to  observe  and  record  about  the 
pupils  in  any  school  are  age  and  grade.  If  they  are  recorded  as  in 
Table  i  on  the  following  page,  even  these  simple  items  tell 
much  about  the  working  of  the  school  in  question.  Thus,  looking 
at  each  vertical  column,  one  sees  at  once  the  enormous  variability 
in  age  of  those  who  reach  the  same  grade  or  educational  standard. 
In  the  third  grade  in  Connecticut  in  1903,  children  were  reported 
as  young  as  four  years  and  as  old  as  seventeen.  To  include  nine 
tenths  of  the  children  in  this  grade,  a  range  of  five  years  is  required. 
Over  three  years  are  required  to  include  even  three  fourths  of 
them.  In  the  fourth  grade,  only  a  quarter  of  the  children  are  of 
the  so-called  "normal"  age  of  ten;  a  fifth  of  them  are  twelve  or 
over;  in  a  class  of  forty  there  will  usually  be  one  child  fourteen  or 
more  years  old  and  four  children  eight  or  less.  In  the  elementary 
school,  even  in  the  lower  grades,  there  are  many  adolescents, 
beginning  to  be  moved  by  the  instincts  of  adult  life.  In  the  high 
school  are  many  boys  and  girls  under  fifteen  who,  though  intel- 
lectually gifted,  are  physically,  emotionally,  and  in  social  in- 
stincts little  children. 

The  reader  may  well  think  through  each  column  of  this  table, 
considering  the  practical  significance  of  the  variability  of  each 
grade.  Grades  9-13,  it  will  be  noted,  are  ambiguous.  Grade  9 
means  in  some  cities  and  towns  the  last  grammar  grade,  and  in 
others  the  first  high-school  grade;  grade  10  means  a  combination 
of  the  first  high-school  grade  of  some,  and  the  second  of  other, 
cities;  and  so  on  for  grades  11,  12,  and  13. 

3 


Educational  Administration 


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Enrollment  in  Relation  to  Age  and  Grade  5   / 

The  variability  of  age  within  the  same  grade  is  seen  more 
clearly  in  Table  2,  in  which  the  percentages  of  each  grade  at  each 
age  are  given,  with  the  extreme  and  infrequent  ages  omitted. 

One  special  feature  of  the  variability  shown  by  an  age-grade 
table  is  the  existence  and  amount  of  what  has  been  called  "  retar- 
dation"— that  is,  of  old  children  in  early  grades.  If  we  call  the 
"normal"  age  that  a  child  should  be  in  grade  i,  six,  in  grade  2, 
seven,  and  so  on,  and  call  children  who  are  below  this  so-called 
normal  age  for  their  grade,  "Retarded,"  then  in  Connecticut  in 
1903  two-thirds  of  the  children  in  grades  3,  4,  and  5  were  retarded 
a  year  or  more.  The  recent  agitation  about  such  so-called  retar- 
dation dates  from  the  exploitation  of  this  feature  of  the  age-grade 
tables  of  certain  cities,  to  which  public  attention  was  called  by 
Bryan  ['07]  Cornman  ['08]  and  Thorndike  ['08],  and  which  was 
later  made  the  subject  of  a  vigorous  propaganda  by  Ayres  ['09]. 

The  next  important  fact  shown  by  the  age-grade  table  is  the 
age  at  which  pupils  leave  school.  Looking  down  the  "Total" 
column  at  the  right  of  Table  i,  one  sees  that,  beginning  at  eleven 
years,  the  number  of  pupils  of  any  year-age  diminishes.  Supposing 
the  population  of  the  state  to  have  been  such  that  the  number  of 
children  who  entered  school  was  the  same  during  each  year  from 
1890  to  1903,  and  disregarding  the  transfer  to  and  from  private 
schools,  it  appears  that  nearly  half  of  the  children  left  school 
before  they  were  fourteen,  and  nearly  five-sixths  before  they  were 
sixteen.  These  figures  would  have  to  be  corrected  somewhat 
elaborately  for  the  growth  of  population  in  the  state,  for  the 
death  rate  during  these  ages,  for  the  date  at  which  the  census  was 
taken,  for  the  private-school  transfers  and  for  other  influences, 
before  an  estimate  of  the  expectation  of  school  Ufa  for  a  Connec- 
ticut child  could  be  made  accurately.  But  they  would  give  the 
first  raw  material  for  such  an  estimate,  and  from  such  enroll- 
ments distributed  as  to  age.  the  first  calculation  of  the  actual  age- 
retention  and  elimination  in  American  cities  was  made  in  1908. 


Educational  Administration 


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Enrollment  in  Relation  to  Age  and  Grade  7 

Such  an  age-grade  table  also  gives  the  most  convenient  approxi- 
mate estimate  of  the  number  of  children  beginning  school  per 
year.  This  important  fact,  which  we  may  call  the  educational 
birth  rate,  is  almost  never  reported  from  direct  measurements. 
The  number  at  age  8  or  the  number  at  age  9  is  found  to  be,  over 
a  series  of  years,  a  fair  rough  measure  of  it. 

Such  an  age-grade  table  gives  data  from  which,  with  the  aid 
of  other  facts,  the  degree  of  education,  measured  by  the  grade 
reached  before  leaving  school,  may  be  calculated  for  the  children 
of  a  community.  This  retention  to,  or  elimination  at,  a  given 
grade  is,  in  many  ways,  more  important  than  retention  to,  or 
elimination  by,  a  given  age. 

Looking  along  the  horizontal  row  of  totals,  one  sees  that  the 
numbers  drop,  there  being  about  half  as  many  in  the  ninth  grade 
as  in  the  seventh,  and  about  half  as  many  in  the  eleventh  as  in 
the  ninth.  If  population  were  stationary,  if  repeating  and  skip- 
ping were  each  as  frequent  in  any  one  grade  as  in  all  others,  and 
if  certain  other  minor  conditions  were  fulfilled,  the  drop  in  the 
figures  from  one  grade  to  the  next  would  measure  the  elimination 
of  pupils  at  that  point.  As  will  be  shown  later,  the  expectation 
that  a  child  of  any  given  school  system  will  continue  to  any  given 
grade  can  be  calculated  by  a  study  of  the  age-grade  table  in 
connection  with  changes  in  population,  the  frequency  of  skipping 
and  repeating  in  each  grade  and  other  facts. 

It  is  worth  while  to  note  that  the  fact  recorded — of  half  as 
many  children  again  in  the  first  as  in  the  second  or  third  grade — 
is  a  common  and  somewhat  curious  feature  of  school  statistics. 
This  enormously  greater  reputed  enrollment  in  grade  i  than  in 
any  other  grade  does  not,  of  course,  mean  that  half  of  the  children 
in  Connecticut  did  not  get  beyond  grade  i .  It  means  in  part  that 
many  more  children  repeated  grade  i  than  later  grades,  in  part 
that  almost  no  children  skipped  grade  i.  But  it  also  probably 
means  certain  possible  errors  of  the  recording  officers.     The 


8  Educational  Administration 

enrollment  statistics  of  grade  i  are  in  general  much  less  reliable 
than  those  of  later  grades.  For  instance,  one  should,  when  the 
frequency  of  non-promotion  in  each  grade  is  given,  be  able  to  get 
approximately  the  enrollment  of  grade  i,  by  adding  to  that  of 
grade  2,  the  excess  of  repeating  and  the  deficiency  of  skipping 
in  grade  i  as  compared  with  grade  2.  But  often  the  recorded 
enrollment  is  far  above  the  result  so  obtained. 

Finally,  an  age-grade  table  tells  something  about  the  kind  of 
pupil  who  is  eUminated  from  school  in  an  early  grade.  For  exam- 
ple, start  in  Table  i  with  the  thirteen-year-olds  who  are  in  grades 
2,3,4  and  5  on  the  the  one  hand,  and  in  grades  7,  8,  9  and  10  on 
the  other.  Comparing  the  thirteen-year-olds  in  grades  2,3,4  and 
5  with  the  fourteen-year-olds  in  grades  3,  4,  5  and  6,  we  find  a 
drop  to  57.2  per  cent,  or  a  difference  of  43  per  cent.  Comparing 
the  thirteen-year-olds  in  grades  7,  8,  9  and  10  with  the  fourteen- 
year-olds  in  grades  8,  9,  10  and  1 1,  we  find  a  drop  to  only  68.7  per 
cent,  or  a  difference  of  only  31  per  cent. 

Similarly  between  fifteen-year-olds  in  grades  2,  3,  4  and  5  and 
sixteen-year-olds  in  grades  3,  4,  5  and  6,  there  is  a  drop  to  42.8 
per  cent,  or  a  difference  of  57.2  per  cent;  while  between  fifteen- 
year-olds  in  grades  7, 8, 9  and  10  and  sixteen-year-olds  in  grades  8, 
9,  10  and  II  there  is  a  drop  to  only  59.4  per  cent,  or  a  difference 
of  only  30.6  per  cent.  In  general,  at  a  given  age  the  ^ retarded''^ 
pupils  are  much  more  often  eliminated.  Further  study  would 
show  that  this  means  that  at  any  age  the  pupils  of  less  interest 
in,  or  ability  at,  scholarship  are  more  often  eliminated. 


§  2.  The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School  ^ 

Introduction 

What  pupils  stay  in  school,  how  long  they  stay,  what  grades 
they  reach,  and  why  they  leave,  are  questions  of  obvious  signif- 
icance for  any  educational  system.  The  facts  concerning  them 
decide  in  great  measure  the  service  performed  by  the  system.  A 
system  in  which  laziness  and  stupidity  eliminate  pupils  is  better 
than  one  in  which  they  are  eliminated  by  poverty.  A  system 
which  holds  60  out  of  100  till  the  eighth  grade  is  presumably 
better  or  more  fortunate  than  one  which  holds  only  20.  If  two 
systems  keep  pupils  in  school  equally  long  so  far  as  years  go,  and 
one  of  the  two  systems  gets  15  out  of  ico  through  the  high  school 
while  the  other  gets  only  5,  the  latter  system  is  probably  some- 
where guilty  of  waste. 

The  facts  really  needed  for  an  adequate  study  of  these  general 
questions  are  the  educational  histories  of  500  to  1,000  children 
(chosen  at  random  from  the  6  to  8-year-olds)  in  each  of  20  or  30 
communities,  each  of  the  individual  histories  to  cover  at  least 
the  years  from  8  to  18.  If  these  histories  were  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  characteristics  of  each  community's  educational 
endeavor,  and  in  connection  also  with  the  economic,  social,  and 
intellectual  environment  of  the  individuals  concerned,  we  could 
know  exactly  the  general  tendency  of  elimination  in  this  country, 
the  variabihty  of  different  communities  in  respect  to  it,  the  causes 
of  these  variations,  and  at  least  some  of  the  ways  to  keep  more 
of  the  children  and  more  of  the  worthy  children  in  school. 

^  The  text  of  §  2  is  composed  in  the  main  of  quotations  from  a  monograph  with 
the  same  title  by  E.  L.  Thomdike  which  appeared  in  1908  as  Bulletin  No.  4,  1907, 
Whole  Number  379,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

9 


lO 


Educational  Administration 


For  four  years  the  author  has  been  gathering  and  studying 
such  data  as  he  could  obtain  from  printed  reports  and  the  Hke 
concerning  various  aspects  of  the  general  question,  in  the  hope 
of  eventually  making  specific  studies  in  some  cities  with  data  of 
the  desirable  sort  just  described,  and  so  being  able  to  interpret 
the  facts  already  given  in  print.  It  has  proved  impracticable  for 
him  to  obtain  these  educational  life  histories  of  individuals.  It 
therefore  seems  best  to  report  briefly  the  facts  at  hand,  in  the 
hope  that  others  may  be  encouraged  to  secure  and  study  the 
more  important  individual  histories. 

The  facts  at  the  basis  of  this  report  are: 

(i)  Registration  statistics  by  grade  in  elementary  and  high 
schools. 

(2)  Registration  statistics  by  age  in  elementary  and  high 
schools. 

(3)  Registration  statistics  by  grade  and  sex  in  high 
schools. 

(4)  Registration  statistics  by  age  and  sex  in  high  schools. 

(5)  Registration  statistics  by  grade  in  colleges. 

Such  facts  are  instructive,  provided  one  uses  them  with  full 
cognizance  of  their  meaning  and  HkeHhood  of  error.  Otherwise 
they  may  be  seriously  misleading.  For  example,  the  registration 
for  grades  5  to  8  in  Springfield  for  1903  was  as  follows: 


Grade  5 1,072 

Grade  6 986 


Grade  7 799 

Grade  8 633 


This  does  not  mean  that  of  1,072  pupils  in  the  fifth  grade  633 
will  remain  on  till  the  eighth;  for  it  to  mean  that,  there  must  be  a 
stationary  school  population.  The  eighth  grade  in  1903  should 
be  compared  not  with  the  lower  grades  of  1903,  but  with  the  fifth 
grade  of  1900,  the  sixth  grade  of  1901,  and  the  seventh  grade  of 
1902.  Doing  this,  we  get  (instead  of  1,072,  986,  799,  and  633) 
904,  892,  768,  and  633. 


The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School  1 1 

But  these  figures,  though  far  nearer  the  truth,  are  by  no  means 
necessarily  a  true  measure  of  the  retention  of  the  fifth  grade 
pupils  of  1900;  for  some  of  these  904  pupils  of  1900  undoubtedly 
were  held  back  two  years  in  some  grade  and  yet  are  staying  on  in 
school  and  will  be  in  the  eighth  grade,  but  in  1904;  conversely 
with  some  promoted  rapidly.  Also,  some  may  have  stayed  out 
of  school  for  a  year  or  more  and  then  reentered.  Also,  if  1,000 
families,  each  with  a  child  of  about  13,  moved  to  Springfield  in 
1902,  the  633  of  the  1903  eighth  grade  would  not  represent  those 
remaining  from  the  904  of  the  1900  fifth  grade;  in  fact,  conceiva- 
bly, not  one  of  them  might  be  left  in  school,  the  633  being  entirely 
composed  of  the  children  of  these  new  families. 

In  the  second  place,  a  true  estimate  of  ehmination  requires 
not  only  public  school  statistics,  but  also  measurements  of  the 
interchange  between  public  and  private  schools.  Luckily,  this 
correction  is  in  most  American  cities  of  little  account. 

My  report  for  education  below  the  colleges  is  based  on  data 
from  public  schools  only.  My  estimates  concern  the  school  careers 
of  children  entering  the  public  schools  of  cities  of  this  class.  Those 
who  leave  to  enter  private  schools  are  probably  balanced  by 
those  who  enter  later  grades  from  the  parochial  and  other  private 
schools.  The  interchange  between  public  and  private  schools 
may  be,  however,  of  varying  influence  in  different  cities,  and 
unless  we  can  estimate  it  accurately  for  each  our  comparison  of 
individual  cities  will  be  to  some  extent  in  error. 

In  the  third  place,  if  we  are  to  make  statements  concerning 
individual  educational  systems,  such  as  individual  cities,  with- 
out risk  of  being  unjust,  we  need  figures  from  enough  years  to 
give  a  result  precise  enough  to  prevent  rating  any  one  city  above 
any  other  when  in  the  long  run  it  would  belong  below  it.  Data 
that  give  a  precise  notion  of  the  general  tendency  of  all  urban 
communities  together  may  give  a  very  rough  approximation 
for  any  single  city. 


12  Educational  Administration 

Elimination  by  Ages:  'Results 

My  study  concerns  8-year-olds  (i)  of  large  cities,  (2)  in  the 
public  schools,  and  (3)  in  the  case  of  cities  where  separate  schools 
for  the  colored  race  are  maintained,  of  the  white  children  only. 
The  data  are,  roughly,  for  the  period  from  1890  to  1900.  I  also 
do  not  count  elimination  by  death.  Such  being  the  conditions, 
I  estimate  that  of  one  hundred  8-year-olds  living  long  enough, 
the  number  retained  till  any  given  age  is  as  follows: 

Percentage  of  8-year-olds  retained 


Per-  Per- 

centage, centage. 


15  years  old 47 

16  years  old 30 

1 7  years  old 16.5 

18  years  old 8.6 


10  years  old 100 

1 1  years  old 98 

1 2  years  old 97 

13  years  old 88 

14  years  old 70 

Figure  i  shows  the  amount  of  elimination  with  respect  to 
age  at  a  glance. 

These  figures  give  the  proof  of  the  provision  in  regular  day 
schools  for  boys  and  girls  who,  in  England  and  Germany,  have 
to  be  at  work  with  only  scanty  schooling  in  special  classes. 
They  show  the  readiness  of  a  large  proportion,  almost  a  majority, 
of  parents  to  neglect  the  opportunity  to  withdraw  their  children 
at  the  legal  age  hmit.  They  also  show  the  very  considerable 
number  of  the  violations  of  the  law,  a  number  which  would 
probably  be  somewhat  increased  if  false  reports  of  age  were  not 
present.  The  legal  age  limit  has  evidently  a  less  effect  than  we 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  supposing.  Its  service  is  now  to  prevent 
the  folly  of  a  minority  of  families  rather  than  to  set  a  standard 
for  the  community  as  a  whole. 

The  importance  of  the  fact  that  pupils  stay  so  long  and  yet 
progress  only  to  so  low  grades  ^  has  been  recognized  by  wise 

*  For  the  period  for  which  this  estimate  of  elimination  by  age  was  made,  the 
elimination  by  grades  was  estimated  as  such  that  the  general  tendency  of  Amer- 


The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School 


13 


administrative  officers.  It  means,  of  course,  that  many  pupils 
are  held  back  unduly,  or  that  the  work  which  they  are  given  to 
do  but  fail  to  do  is  unsuited  to  them.  Rapid-promotion  systems, 
special  classes,  careful  regulation  of  promotion,  the  substitution 
of  industrial  and  trade  schools  or  courses  for  the  regular  school, 


100 

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12  13  14 

Age 

Fig.  I.    Amount  of  elimination  with  respect  to  age 


and  the  like  will  be  used  by  efficient  school  officers  to  make  reten- 
tion to  a  late  age  mean  also  retention  to  a  valuable  education. 
At  the  first  sight  it  seems  strange  that  so  many  pupils  should 

ican  cities  of  25,000  and  over  was  to  keep  in  school  out  of  100  entering  pupils  (here, 
and  throughout  the  report,  unless  the  contrary  is  specially  stated,  "  children"  or 
"pupils"  includes  white  pupils  only,  in  cities  where  colored  pupils  are  taught  in 
separate  schools)  who  lived  long  enough  to  complete  the  course,  90  till  grade  4,  8i 
till  grade  5,  68  till  grade  6,  54  till  grade  7,  40  tiU  the  last  grammar  grade  (usually 
the  eighth,  but  sometimes  the  ninth,  and  rarely  the  seventh),  27  till  the  first  high- 
school  grade,  17  till  the  second,  12  till  the  third,  and  8  till  the  fourth.  Figure  2 
shows  graphically  this  general  tendency. 


14 


Educational  Administration 


stay  in  school  till  lo,  ii,  12,  13,  and  14,  and  so  few  till  the  fourth, 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  How,  for  instance, 
can  we  have  97  per  cent  of  the  8-year-olds  staying  till  they  are 
12,  but  only  68  per  cent  of  those  in  the  second  grade  staying  till 
the    sixth   grade? 

100 


2  3  4  5  6  7       Last  IH.        2H.       3H. 

©  r  a  d  e  Grammar 

Fig.  2.     Amount  of  elimination  with  respect  to  grade  reached. 


4H. 


The  main  cause  of  this  fact  is  that  the  elimination  of  pupils  in 
any  grade,  but  specially  in  the  lower  ones,  is  largely  of  older  pupils. 
If  we  recall,  for  instance,  the  fact  that  in  the  sixth  school  grade 
in  Connecticut  in  1903  as  many  pupils  were  13  or  over  as  were 
under  12,  we  may  understand  that  the  32  per  cent  of  elimination 
before  the  sixth  grade  could  take  place  largely  at  the  expense  of 
children  13  or  more  years  old. 

I  have  calculated  what  would  be  the  grade  retention  if  the  age 
retention  were  1,000  7  years  old,  1,000  8  years  old,  1,000  9  years 
old,  998  10  years  old,  980  11  years  old,  970  12  years  old,  880  13 
years  old,  700  14  years  old,  470  15  years  old,  300  16  years  old, 
165  17  years  old,  and  86  18  years  old  (with  the  proper  number  5 


Tlte  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School 


15 


and  6  years  old  added),  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  per  cents  of 
children  of  given  ages  in  the  different  grades  is  as  found  in  the 
1903  Connecticut  report.  The  resulting  figures  are  close  to  those 
obtained  by  my  own  study.  The  study  of  the  age  retention  thus 
really  verifies  the  approximate  accuracy  of  the  results  of  the  study 
of  grade  retention. 


100 


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0. 


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3  4  5 

6  r  a  d  e 


7        Last        IH. 
Grammar 


2H.       3H 


4H. 


Fig.  3.  Verification  of  the  approximate  accuracy  of  the  estimate  of  elimination 
by  grade  reached  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  dotted  line  shows  the  retention  in  the 
different  grades  (4  to  4  H.  S.)  as  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  age  retention 
stated  in  the  text  and  the  age-grade  distribution  found  in  Connecticut  in  1903. 
The  continuous  line  shows  the  retention  in  the  different  grades  as  stated  in 
the  text. 

The  essential  facts  are  given  in  Figure  3  and  the  legend  be- 
neath it. 

Elimination  by  Ages:  Methods:  The  Original  Data  of  Age 
Populations 

Table  3  gives  a  sample  of  such  data  as  I  gathered  concerning 
the  number  of  pupils  of  each  year-age  in  the  public  schools  of 
25  cities. 


i6 


Educational  Administration 


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The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School 


17 


Table  4  gives  the  facts  for  ages  of  10  and  over  in  percentages 
on  the  number  of  7,  8,  and  9-year-olds  divided  by  3,  which  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  number  of  8-year-olds,  a  single  set 
of  such  percentages  being  calculated  from  all  the  records  together 
for  any  city. 

TABLE  4 
The  Per  Cents  Which  the  io- Year-Olds,  ii -Year-Olds,  etc.,  in  School,  are  op  the  Number 
OF  8-Year-Old3  Approximately,  by  Giving  the  Per  Cents  Which  They  are  of 
the  Sum  of  the  7,  8,  and  9- Year-Olds  Divided  by  3.     (25  Cities) 


Age 


Years  repotted 


13 


16 


18 


19 


Baltimore. 
Boston. . . . 


Cleveland. 


Chicago 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

Dayton 

Denver 


Fitchburg.  .  . . 
Grand  Rapids. 


Jersey  City 

Johnstown 

Kansas  City,  Kans. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. . 

Little  Rock 

Los  Angeles 

Louisville 

Minneapolis 


1807, 1898, 1901 
1894, 1896, 1897 

1903. 
1895, 1896, 1897 
1898, 1900, 1901 

1902,1904 
1900,  1901.  . 

1899,  1902.  . 

1900,  1901.  . 
1897,1898,1899 

1900,  1901 

1901 

1899, 1 901, 1903 

1904. 
1897, 1898, 1899 

1903 

1900,  1901 

1900,  1901 

189s,  1896 

1899,  1900, 1901 


.0    96. 
,6    93. 


Newark 

New  Orleans 

Omaha 

Springfield,  Mass. 


St.  Joseph. 
St.  Paul. . . 
Toledo.  . .  . 
Troy 


1898. 1900. 1902 
1904. 

1901. 1902. 1903 
1901,  1902 

1898,  1899 

1899,  1900, 1901 
1902,  1903. 

1801,  1892 

1893 

1894,  1899 

1891, 189s, 1896 


93-3 


90.4 
98.3 
97. 
98.7 

84.4 
102.0 

97.0 
107 
106.4 
102. 1 
IOI.6 
101.4 

93 -S 


94.0 
99-3 
89.8 
91.0 

11-5 

87.4 
85.3 
12.0 


82.3 


83. S 
88.  s 
91.2 
91.8 

86.7 
9S.6 

90.0 
99-7 

101.5 
92.4 

100. o 
91.9 
80.9 
91.8 

83.8 
88.3 
79-7 
88.9 

92-S 
73.7 
74.6 
92. S 


913 
93-6 

83.4 


79.8 
91.7 
88.9 
90.4 

84.4 
94.2 

89.1 
86.6 
99.1 
91. 1 
95-4 
89.8 
8S.3 
91 .0 

80.4 
84.6 
81.8 
87.0 

78.1 

74.2 

76.3 

100. o 


73-3 
88.8 

73-4 


67.9 
86.1 
85.3 
81.8 

93  I 
93.2 

76.2 
88.9 
88.4 
83.5 
86.3 
77-7 
74-1 
81.8 

S9-7 
70.0 
74.7 
85.0 

72.3 
61.9 
67.6 
79.0 


.SO.  9 
72.4 


6s.3 
73 

64.7 
73.8 

51-5 
85.3 

SS.o 

62.8 

74-9 

71 

77-3 

67.9 

53.6 

70.0 

3S-7 

a5i.3 

59.2 

76.3 

56.4 
54. 3 
.s8.8 
63.9 


31.6 
SO. 3 


31-4 
Sl-2 
39-4 
59-9 

42.6 
71.9 

33-7 

40.3 

54. 8 

57 

57-5 

49.1 

42.1 

50.6 

18 
023 
42.8 
58. 5 


35.8 
37-6 
35-7 


16.1 
31.6 

16.4 


19.7 
35.0 
25.2 
44.1 

29.2 
42.7 

13-0 
19. 1 
38.4 
38.3 
36.7 
31.8 
193 
39-5 

10.4 

ai3.4 

27.2 

390 


8.0 
17-5 


3.8 
9 


i.o 
<»3.3 


21.4 
17.6 
28.9 

14.6 
21. S 

4-5 
9.2 
25-5 
24.1 
16.6 
19.2 
12.7 
19.8 

5-2 

a8.2 
14.7 

24-1 


10.4 

II. 

18. 

6. 
14.6 


6.3 
12.8 
13.6 

8.2 
10. 1 

6.9 
II. 3 

2.8 

"3-4 
6.6 
14-5 


1.0 
7.3 

0.8 
2.3 
4.8 
5.3 
2.3 
8.9 
2.8 
S-o 

1.6 

02.3 
2.8 

6.9 


26.2 


10.3 
10.8 

12.6 


Medians 98 . 7 


91.2 


88.9 


790 


63 -9 


42.6    26.7 


7.6 


iS-o      7.8 


3-4 
1.7 
4.8 


o  Approximate 

The  Reliability  of  Age  Data  from  a  Few  Years  as  Representative 
of  the  General  Tendencies  of  Cities 
The  general  tendency  of  a  city  as  shown  in  a  long  series  of 
years  is  of  course  only  approximately  represented  by  the  figures 
of  Table  4  calculated  from  only  a  few  years'  statistics. 


1 8  Educational  Administration 

The  closeness  of  the  approximation  can  be  calculated  by  well 
known  formulae  based  on  the  theory  of  probability.  I  have,  to 
this  end,  calculated  the  percentages  of  lo,  ii,  12,  etc.,  year-olds 

on ^-^ for  each  year's  record  from  Springfield  (five 

o 
years),  Minneapolis  (four  years),  Cleveland  (eight  years),  and 

Dayton  (two  years) ;  and,  from  these  individual-year  percentages, 
have  calculated  the  probable  closeness  of  the  approximation  for 
a  record  from  one  year  only,  for  a  record  from  two  years,  etc. 
The  chances  are  even  that  the  results  obtained  for  lo-year-olds 
will  not  diverge  from  the  true  per  cents  by  more  than — 

1.7  per  cent  of  the  per  cent  obtained,  one  year's  records  being  used. 
1.2  per  cent  of  the  per  cent  obtained,  two  years'  records  being  used, 
i.o  per  cent  of  the  per  cent  obtained,  three  years'  records  being  used. 

.8  per  cent  of  the  per  cent  obtained,  four  years'  records  being  used. 

.8  per  cent  of  the  per  cent  obtained,  five  years'  records  being  used. 

For  other  ages  the  corresponding  figures  are  obtained  by  divid- 
ing a  given  constant,  computed  for  each  age,  by  the  square  root  of 
the  number  of  years'  records  used.  The  value  of  the  constant 
for  each  age  is  as  follows : 

Value  of  Value  of 

constant  constant 


ii-year-olds 1.9 

1 2-year-olds 2.6 

13-year-olds 3.5 

14-year-oIds 4.1 


iS-year-olds 4.8 

16-year-olds 5.3 

1 7-year-olds 5.7 


To  get  the  figures  such  that  the  chances  are  99  to  i  against 
greater  divergence,  multiply  the  figures  for  even  chances  by  3^. 

For  example,  the  obtained  result  from  Denver  for  16-year-olds 
is  44.1  calculated  from  five  years'  records.  The  chances  are  even 
that  the  true  per  cent  for  Denver  16-year-olds  will  not  diverge 

from  44.1  by  more  than  -7-  per  cent  of  44.1,  or  i.i.     That  is, 


The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School  ig 

the  chances  are  even  that  the  true  per  cent  will  lie  between  43 
and  45.2. 

The  chances  are  even  that  the  medians  calculated  from  these 
25  cities  will  not  diverge  from  the  medians  of  the  entire  group  of 
cities  from  which  these  are  a  random  sampling  by  more  than  the 
following  per  cents  for  the  different  ages: 

Per  cent  Per  cent 


lo-yearnalds , o 

I  i-year-olds 

1 2-year-olds 

13-year-olds I 

14-year-olds I 


15-year-olds 1.8 

16-year-olds 1.8 

1 7-year-olds i .  i 

18-year-olds 55 

19-year-olds 3 


The  Process  of  Estimating  Actual  Elimination  from  the  Facts  of 
School  Age  Populations 

The  figures  of  Tables  3  and  4,  obtained  from  the  contempora- 
neous age  populations,  need  to  be  viewed  in  the  Ught  of  the  fact 
that  in  these  cities  the  number  of  children  10,  or  11,  or  12,  years 
old  is  not  the  same  as  the  number  of  8-year-olds.  Just  what  the 
ratios  are  in  each  city  is  not  known,  nor  are  the  ratios  for  the 
cities  as  a  group  known  more  than  approximately.  An  accurate 
census  by  year  ages  is  needed  for  this.  By  the  natural  "birth-rate 
minus  death-rate  "  increase,  there  are,  in  the  entire  country,  for 
every  1,324  from  5  to  9,  1,175  from  10  to  14,  and  1,057  from  15  to 
19  (Abstract  of  12th  Census,  p.  12) ;  that  is,  88.7  and  79.8  per  cent, 
respectively.  In  the  cities  as  a  group,  this  condition  holds  approxi- 
mately for  the  10  to  14  group,  but  not  at  all  for  the  15  to  19  group, 
the  1890  and  the  1900  censuses  giving,  for  the  corresponding 
percentages,  approximately  91  and  96.  These  diifferences  are 
due  to  a  very  slight  degree  probably  to  differences  between  the 
urban  and  the  general  birth  rate,  and  to  a  large  degree  to  the 
fact  that  inter-migration  of  city  and  country  children  gives  the 
cities  more  boys  and  girls  from  10  to  14,  and  many  more  from  15 
to  19,  than  it  removes.    Individual  cities  vary  very  widely  from 


20  Educational  Administration 

the  general  tendency  of  the  group,  some  cities  having  as  many 
children  lo  to  14  as  5  to  9,  and  others  only  80  per  cent  as  many. 
The  variation  in  the  ratio  which  the  number  of  children  15  to  19 
bears  to  the  number  5  to  9  is  still  more  variable.  I  shall  not,  in 
general,  try  to  estimate  the  number  of  children  at  each  year  age 
in  each  city,but  shall  do  so  only  for  each  age  group  as  a  whole. 
Using  the  data  given  in  the  census  reports  for  1890  and  1900, 

I  find  that  the  median  per  cent  which  the  ten  to  fourteen-year- 
olds  were  of  the  5  to  9-year-olds  in  the  cities  of  Table  4  was  94  in 
1980,  and  88  in  1900.  The  median  per  cent  which  the  15  to  19- 
year-olds  were  of  the  5  to  9-year-olds  in  these  cities  was  99  in  1890. 

We  may  then  fairly  take  the  percentages  which  the  numbers 
of  inhabitants  of  each  age  from  10  on  are  to  the  number  of  7,  8, 
and  9-year-olds  divided  by  3  as: 

Percentage 
10  years  old 96 

I I  years  old 94 

1 2  years  old 92 

13  years  old 90 

14  years  old 89 

We  might  then,  to  get  for  the  group  the  per  cent  of  the  children 
of  each  age  that  are  in  school,  divide  through  the  figures  repre- 
senting the  central  tendency  of  cities  for  ages  10,  11,  12,  etc.,  in 
order,  by  0.96,  0.94,  0.92,  etc., — that  is,  divide  the  98.7  of  Table  4 
by  0.96,  the  91.2  by  0.94,  the  88.9  by  0.92,  and  so  on.  The  figures 
thus  obtained  would  not,  however,  be  truly  significaot  for  the 
years  from  14  on,  for  the  reason  that  among  the  15  to  19-year- 
olds  migrating  to  the  city,  very  many  have  already  been  eliminated 
from  school  in  the  country,  and  come  to  the  city  specifically  to 
work.  We  should  have  in  our  result  a  measure,  not  of  the  elimina- 
tion in  cities,  but  of  the  elimination  in  cities  plus  the  nature  of 
the  selection  by  cities  from  other  localities.  On  the  other  hand, 
to  take  ratios  based  exclusively  on  the  ''birth-rate  minus  death- 
rate"  increase,  whereby  the  15  to  19-year-olds  are  only  79.8  per 


Percentage 

15  years  old 90 

16  years  old 92 

1 7  years  old 98 

18  years  old 102 


The  Elimination  oj  Pupils  from  ScJwol  21 

cent  of  the  5  to  9-year-olds,  would  be  unfair,  for  the  reason  that 
many  families  move  to  the  city  so  that  older  children  can  have 
the  advantage  of  the  high  school;  moreover  some  of  the  pupils 
counted  in  the  city  school  populations,  especially  in  the  late 
years,  come  in  daily  from  the  surrounding  country.  Though 
perhaps  nine  out  of  ten  of  the  ''  15  to  19  increase  by  immigration  " 
come  to  the  cities  to  work,  a  few  come  specifically  to  go  to  school. 
On  the  whole,  in  order  to  compare  the  numbers  actually  in 
school  with  the  numbers  that  would  be  if  every  child  in  the  cities 
who  is  in  school  at  8  years  of  age,  kept  on  in  school  till  he  was  19 
(except  for  death) ,  and  if  no  one  moved  away  from,  or  moved  into, 
the  cities,  we  may  fairly  balance  the  results  of  death  and  of 
immigration  on  the  school  age  population  records  after  14,  and 
regard  the  per  cents  with  which  the  98.7,  91.2,  88.9,  etc.,  of 
Table  4  should  be  compared  as  follows: 


School  expectation  if  no  elimination  existed 
Percentage 

10  years  old 96 

1 1  years  old ^ 94 

1 2  years  old 92 

13  years  old 90 

14  years  old 90 


Percentage 

1 5  j'ears  old 90 

16  years  old 90 

1 7  years  old 90 

18  years  old 90 


The  percentages  retained  then  rise  from  98.7,  91.2,  88.9,  etc., 
and  become — 

7  +  8-\-Q 
Percentage  oj  retained 


Percentage 

10  years  old 103 .  o 

1 1  years  old 97  ■  o 

1 2  years  old 97.0 

13  years  old 88 .  o 

14  years  old 70 .  o 


3 

Percentage 

1 5  years  old 47.0 

16  years  old 30.0 

17  years  old 16. 5 

18  years  old 8.6 


The  absurdity  of  the  103  per  cent  is  probably  due  to  the  tend- 
ency of  the  children  to  state  their  age  as  10  if  it  is  9  or  11,  more 


22  Educational  Administration 

often  than  to  state  it  as  9  if  it  is  8  or  10,  or  as  11  if  it  is  10  or  12; 
and  perhaps  to  the  late  entry  to  the  pubHc  schools  of  a  few  chil- 
dren.   We  may  properly  correct  for  this,  making  the  percentage 

7-1-8+9 

of retained  as  follows: 

3 

Corrected  percentage  of retained 

3 
Percentage     (  Percentage 

15  years  old 47  o 

16  years  old 30.0 

1 7  years  old 16.5 

18  years  old 8.6 


ID  years  old 100 . o 

1 1  years  old 98 .  o 

1 2  years  old 970 

13  years  old 88 .  o 

14  years  old 70.0 


These  figures  represent  as  good  an  approximation  to  the  reten- 
tion of  children  in  city  public  schools,  such  as  those  listed,  at  the 
year  1900,  as  I  can  get  from  the  data  at  hand  without  elaborate 
hypotheses  for  correction.  It  is  certainly  not  far  from  the  truth 
to  say  that  of  pupils  entering  these  city  schools  one-tenth  leave 
before  13  years  of  age,  one-fourth  before  14,  one-half  before  15, 
two-thirds  before  16,  and  five-sixths  before  17. 

The  reader  will  understand  that  these  figures  for  cities  may  be 
much  too  high  for  the  country  at  large.  Even  in  Connecticut,  a 
State  fortunate  in  its  means  of  education,  the  corresponding 
figures  ^  are — 


Percentage 

10  jears  old 99-5 

1 1  years  old 94  •  o 

1 2  years  old 94 .  o 

13  years  old 91.0 

14  years  old 57° 


Percentage 

15  years  old 320 

16  years  old 19.0 

1 7  years  old 11.  o 

1 8  years  old 6.0 


The  Variability  Among  Cilies  with  Respect  to  Elimination  by  Age 
The  student  who  is  desirous  of  a  strict  account  of  the  variabil- 

'  From  the  1903  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  pp.  184-185,  reduced  to. 
per  cents  of  the  number  of  S-year-olds  and  corrected  by  the  population  statistics  of 
the  census  of  1900. 


The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School 


23 


ity  of  cities  in  respect  to  elimination  by  age  may,  by  using  the 
data  given  by  Thorndike  ['08,  Tables  17  and  19],  and  such  other 
data  as  he  may  secure  from  city  reports,  correct  each  city's 
school  population  statistics  separately  and  then  compare  them. 
I  shall  do  this  only  for  three  high  and  three  low  ranking  cities 
and  without  attempt  at  perfect  precision. 

The  age  population  percentages  for  Cleveland,*  Jersey  City, 
and  Newark  schools,  as  given  in  Table  4,  are: — 


CITY 

AGE 

10         ;       II               12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

Per  ct.     Per  cl.     Per  ct. 
93-3        82..^        8,5.4 
97.0         91. 0         89.0 
94.0        8.5.8        80.4 

Per  a. 

73.4 
76.2 
50-7 

Per  ct. 

S4.0 
SS-O 
35-7 

Per  ct. 
29-3 
33-7 
18.7 

Per  ct. 
16.4 
13-0 
I0.4 

Per  ct. 
10. 1 

4-S 
S-2 

Per  ct. 

Jersey  City 

2.1 
2  8 

Average" 

Median 

94.8     85.7     84.3 
94.0     83.8     8.5.4 

69.8 
73-4 

48.2 
54.0 

27.2         13.3 
293         I3-0 

6.6 

5-2 

4.0 
2.8 

a  Approximate 


Those  for  Denver,  Grand  Rapids,  and  Springfield  are: — 


CITY 

AGE 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

98.7 
102.0 
91.0 

91.8 
95-6 
88. 9 

90.4 
94.2 
87.0 

81.8 
93.2 
85.0 

73.8 
85.3 
76.3 

59-9 
71.9 
S8.S 

44.1 
42.7 
39-0 

28.9 
21. S 
24.1 

18  0 

Grand  Rapids 

18.0 
13.6 

Average 

97.2 
98.7 

92.1 
91.8 

90s 
90.4 

86.7 
85.0 

78.5 
76.3 

63 -4 
59. 9 

41.9 

42.7 

24.8 
14. 1 

IS. 4 
14.6 

The  question  is  as  to  how  far  these  extreme  individual  differ- 
ences are  due  to  differences  in  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  cities, 
and  how  far  they  are  due  to  real  differences  in  the  educational 
character  of  the  cities.  The  percentages  which  the  number  10 
to  14  and  the  number  15  to  19  are  to  the  number  5  to  9  for  those 
cities  are: 

'  Baltimore  makes  a  lower  record  than  Cleveland,  but  as  this  may  be  due  in  large 
measure  to  the  colored  population  it  seemed  better  not  to  include  it. 


24 


Educational  Administration 


Cleveland.  . 
Jersey  City  . 
Newark.  . . 


Average 85 . 4 

Median I     85 . 4 


10-14      1S-19 


86. s 
84.2 
85.4 


89.0 
83.0 
86.0 


86.0 
86.0 


axx 

Denver 

Grand  Rapids.  .  . 
Springfield 

Average.  .  .  . 
Median 


10-14 


86.1 


87.9 
88.4 


1S-19 


90.0 
90.0 


89.3 
90.0 


It  thus  appears  that  the  superiority  of  the  record  by  age  popu- 
lations of  the  second  group  of  cities  is  in  a  sHght  degree  due,  to  the 
fact  that  they  have  more  children  lo  to  i8  to  draw  from,  approxi- 
mately 4  per  cent  more.  If  the  age  populations  of  the  former 
group  are  multiplied  each  by  1.04,  this  disadvantage  is  removed. 
The  difference  thus  made  is  very  slight. 

It  is  also  true  that  Newark  and  Cleveland  have  flourishing 
private  schools,  which  take  from  the  public  schools  more  old 
pupils  than  they  return  in  exchange,  and  which  eliminate  a  very 
small  percentage  of  their  pupils  compared  with  the  public  school 
per  cents,  Springfield,  Grand  Rapids,  and  Denver  do  not  have 
private  schools  of  anywhere  nearly  so  great  influence  on  school 
attendance.  Moreover,  these  latter  cities  probably  gain  more 
from  the  registration  of  out-of-town  pupils  in  the  high  schools 
than  do  Jersey  City  and  Newark.  A  Uberal  allowance  for  all 
these  influences  and  others,  except  the  nature  of  the  pupils  and 
of  the  school  systems  themselves,  will  be  made  by  multiplying 
the  figures  for  the  former  group  by: 


10  years  old i 

1 1  years  old   i 

1 2  years  old. i 

13  years  old i 

14  years  old i 


Multi- 
plier 

04 
04 
05 
05 
06 


Multi- 
plier 

15  years  old i .  08 

16  years  old i .  lo 

1 7  years  old 1.18 

18  vears  old i .  20 


We  have  then  the  following: 


The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School 


25 


Average 


Cleve- 
land, etc. 


Denver, 
etc. 


Median 


Cleve- 
land, etc. 


Denver, 
etc. 


10  years 

11  years 

12  years 

13  years 

14  years 

15  years 

16  years 

17  years 

18  years 


99 
89 
89 
73 
51 
29 

I4S 
7.8 
4.8 


97 
92 
91 
87 

n 
63 

42.0 
24.8 

iS-4 


98 
87 
88 

77 
S7 
32 
14-3 
6.1 

3-4 


99 
92 
90 

8S 

76 

60 

42.7 

24.1 

14.6 


The  cities  in  the  second  list,  after  this  allowance,  still  keep  one 
and  a  half  times  as  many  to  the  age  of  14,  twice  as  many  to  15, 
three  times  as  many  to  16,  and  three  and  a  half  times  as  many  to 
17  and  18. 


§  3-  Promotion,  Retardation,  and  ELiinNATioN  * 

It  is,  or  should  be,  well  known  that  in  every  administrative 
educational  unit  such  as  a  city  school  system  or  a  private  secon- 
dary school,  the  fractions  of  the  total  course  nominally  to  be 
completed  in  equal  times, — for  example,  the  '^ grades"  of  the 
elementary  school,  or  the  "years"  of  the  secondary  school, — 
may  actually  require  unequal  periods.  This  requirement  of 
unequal  periods  in  a  given  system  is  disclosed  by  the  fact  that  a 
large  percentage  of  the  pupils  spend  more  time  in  one  grade  than 
in  another.  Nevertheless,  a  year,  or  half  year,  as  the  case  may  be, 
is  often  unwisely  assumed  to  be  the  normal  time  for  all  pupils 
and  all  grades  alike. 

It  is  worth  while  to  find  out  the  general  tendency  of  the  ele- 
mentary or  secondary  schools  in  this  country  in  this  respect.  If 
there  is  a  general  tendency  affecting  some  particular  grade  or 
grades,  the  fact  is  of  importance  for  three  reasons.  If  there  is  a 
general  tendency  such  as  to  make  the  completion  of,  say,  the 
second  grade  in  the  "normal"  unit  of  time  a  specially  difficult 
task  for  the  pupil  who  reaches  it,  it  would  probably  be  advisable 
to  eliminate  this  tendency.  Teachers,  pupils,  and  parents  would 
thereby  comprehend  more  easily  the  work  of  the  school  and  what 
is  necessary  to  its  satisfactory  completion.  If  the  inequality  is 
not  removed,  its  existence  could  at  least  be  made  known  to  teach- 
ers, pupils,  and  parents.  A  more  precise  knowledge  of  these 
inequalities  will  also  help  us  to  estimate  the  nature  and  amount 

^  For  a  complete  account  of  the  investigation,  certain  results  of  which  are  reported 
in  this  section,  see  the  article  by  E.  L.  Thomdike  with  the  same  title,  in  "The 
Psychological  Clinic,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  232-243  and  255-265.  This  section  quotes 
therefrom  with  omissions  and  minor  alterations. 

26 


Promotion,  Retardation,  and  Elimination  27 

of  the  retardation  of  pupils  in  school,  and  the  elimination  of 
pupils  from  school, 

I  propose,  therefore,  to  measure  the  extent  to  which  the  dif- 
ferent grades  of  the  elementary  and  high  schools  are,  in  American 
cities  in  general,  of  unequal  length. 

The  most  desirable  material  from  which  to  calculate  this 
measurement  would  be  a  sufficient  number  of  individual  educa- 
tional histories,  stating  accurately  how  long  each  pupil  took  to 
complete  grade  i,  how  long  to  complete  grade  2,  etc.  Such  life 
histories  do  not  exist  at  all  in  published  form,  and  only  rarely  in 
the  written  records  of  school  officers,  and  could  be  secured  in 
adequate  number  only  at  a  cost  for  travel,  time,  and  clerical 
assistance  which  is  for  the  author  prohibitive.  The  facts  can 
be  fairly  well  determined,  however,  from  city  school  reports, 
from  an  examination  of  the  not  infrequent  statements  of  the 
number  of  promotions  by  grades.  This  method  is  the  one  which 
I  shall  employ. 

By  examining  the  reports  of  over  one  hundred  cities  and  towns, 
covering  a  period  of  from  one  to  five  years,  I  have  obtained 
fifteen  statements  from  which  one  can  infer,  with  fair  accuracy, 
the  comparative  lengths  of  the  elementary  school  grades  for  each 
city  in  question;  and  four  in  which  the  same  is  true  for  the  high- 
school  grades  also. 

Although  it  is  the  relative  length  of  the  different  grades  which 
is  to  be  measured,  I  shall  give  first  the  actual  percentages  of  pupils 
who  at  the  end  of  the  year  fail  to  be  promoted,  and  would  there- 
fore be  compelled  to  repeat  the  work  of  the  grade  if  they  remained 
in  school.  I  give  them  because  they  are  original  data  bearing  on 
the  general  problem  of  retardation,  and  are  in  some  respects  su- 
perior to  the  statistics  of  over-age  pupils  that  have  hitherto  been 
collected.  These  percentages  of  pupils  failing  of  promotion  are 
calculated,  when  it  is  possible,  directly  as  percentages  of  those 
enrolled  in  the  grade  at  the  end  of  the  year,  but  in  the  case  of 


28  Educational  Administration 

three  cities,  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  Rochester,  the  best 
that  could  be  done  was  to  infer  the  enrollment  at  the  end  of  the 
year  according  to  the  method  shown  on  pages  241-243  of  The 
Psychological  Clinic,  vol.  III.  The  calculated  proportion  of 
pupils  enrolled  at  the  end  of  the  year  who  failed  of  promotion,  is 
given  in  Table  5.  I  have,  in  what  follows,  used  grades  2  to  8 
rather  than  i  to  8,  because  of  the  very  great  variabiHty  among 
cities  in  the  proportion  of  failures  in  the  first  grade  and  because 
of  certain  eccentricities  in  the  reports  of  first  grade  enroll- 
ments .... 

[Here  follows  in  the  original  report  an  account  of  how  far 
these  percentages  of  failure  on  enrollments  are  valid  measures  of 
the  inequality  of  the  grades  in  length  and  of  certain  conclusions 
which  can  not  be  drawn  from  them.] 

There  are  other  interesting  considerations  with  respect  to 
what  these  statistics  of  failure  do  not  mean  and  do  not  imply. 
But  it  will  be  better  to  devote  the  remaining  space  to  showing 
what  they  do  mean,  first,  with  respect  to  the  course  of  study, 
second  with  respect  to  retardation,  and  third  with  respect  to 
elimination. 

Fortunately,  in  considering  these  topics  we  can  use  measure- 
ments of  the  relative  length  of  the  grades  from  more  cities  than  I 
have  reported.  Ayres  ['09],  working  with  recent  reports,  has  found 
records  in  sixteen  cities,  thirteen  of  which  are  not  included  in  my 
list.  No  substantial  difference  appears  between  the  results  from 
combining  all  the  cities  in  both  studies,  and  the  results  from 
either  set  separately,  but  the  reliability  is,  of  course,  about  one 
and  four-tenths  times  as  great.  I  have  therefore  recalculated  all 
my  results,  after  adding  the  thirteen  cities. 

We  have  then  as  the  percentages  of  the  June  enrollment  which 
fail  of  promotion  these  central  tendencies  for  the  grades  in  order.  ^ 

^  Using  the  average  of  the  A  and  B  halves  of  the  grades  of  Manhattan  and 
Brooklyn. 


Promotion,  Retardation,  and  Elimination 


2Q 


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N    so      >») 


o         o    r;  00  «^  I 


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>  "  ".    r 

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?!    ° 


U      3    .=      C      <= 

•=  -=    sc   c    rt 


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«  S  (£ 


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J3  o 


o-a 


a_- 


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30  Educational  Administration 

Grades 2        3        4        S        6        7      Last  grammar  iH  2H  3H  4H 

Medians 12.25  14.   14.75  16.   14- 25  15.  12.5  21    20   16     5 

Promotion  and  the  Course  of  Study 

It  is  desirable  that  the  course  of  study  should  be  stated  in 
terms  of  objective  achievement  grade  by  grade,  so  that  teachers 
may  know  what  their  pupils  are  supposed  to  accomplish.^  It 
would  be  desirable  also  to  have  this  series  of  stages  of  achieve- 
ment correspond  to  equal  time-units  for  the  average,  or  better, 
the  modal  child,  i.  e.  to  have  each  grade  in  succession  represent 
what  would  be  a  year's  or  half  year's  work  for  him,  if  all  the  chil- 
dren stayed  to  complete  the  course,  or  if  elimination  were  random 
with  respect  to  school  ability.-  As  things  are,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  each  grade  represent  a  year's  or  a  half  year's  work  for  the 
modal  child  u>ho  enters  that  grade.  There  is  no  demonstrable 
tendency  in  the  city  schools  as  a  group  to  depart  from  the  second 
standard,  except  in  the  first  grade.  Individual  cities,  of  course, 
may  seem  to  be  acting  unwisely  in  making  ostensibly  equal  grades 
really  very  unequal.  Before  passing  judgment  on  any  city,  how- 
ever, its  practice  over  several  years  must  be  studied  and  all  the 
circumstances  determining  its  policy  must  be  considered.  The 
apparent  departure  of  making  grade  8  too  short  as  compared  with 
grades  3  to  7,  may  be  entirely  due  to  the  greater  ehmination  dur- 
ing the  year  in  grade  8  of  those  who,  if  they  stayed,  would  fail  of 
promotion.  The  same  fact  must  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  apparent  shortness  of  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  the 
high  school,  although  in  this  case  there  is  perhaps  a  real  error  in 

^  With  allowances,  of  course,  first  for  individual  differences  among  pupils,  the 
work  of  a  grade  not  being  required  to  be  done  by  all  with  exactly  the  same  degree 
of  excellence;  and  secondly  for  different  courses  of  study  for  different  t3T)es  of 
pupil. 

^  The  reasons  for  this  are  economy  and  convenience.  More  rapid  courses  for 
more  gifted  pupils  might  well  crowd  the  work  in  some  semesters  and  relax  it  in 
others  with  still  greater  economy.  On  the  other  hand,  slower  courses  might  at 
times  be  more  economical. 


Promotion,  Retardation,  and  FJimination  31 

making  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  too  hard  in  comparison 
with  the  last  two. 

The  first  grade  is  probably  longer  for  those  who  enter  it  than 
later  grades  are  for  those  who  enter  them,  although  of  course  not 
nearly  so  much  longer  as  it  seems.  The  best  practical  solution 
may  be,  not  to  lessen  its  work,  but  to  add  an  easier  preparatory 
grade  and  admit  to  the  first  grade  only  the  pupils  who  arc  ready 
for  it — those  who  can  reach  the  standard  of  the  modal  pupil  in  the 
normal  time.  / 

Promotion  and  Retardation 

Retardation  is  commonly  taken  to  mean  the  fact  that  a  pupil 
is  in  a  lower  grade  than  he  would  be  if  he  had  begun  school  at  the 
usual  age  and  had  progressed  one  grade  each  year.  This  raises 
certain  difficulties  in  making  allowance  for  systems  which  use 
seven  or  nine  grades  for  the  work  usually  done  in  eight,  and  lacks 
the  objectivity  and  uniformity  which  would  be  gained  if  we  could 
establish  certain  definite  amounts  of  achievement  in  terms  of 
knowledge,  power,  skill,  etc.,  to  be  expected  at  each  age,  and  could 
use  "retardation"  for  the  degree  of  inferiority  of  a  child  to  the 
amount  of  achievement  to  be  expected  at  his  age.  But  until  such 
standards  of  school  progress  are  available,  and  until  children  are 
measured  by  them,  we  may  profitably  use  the  customary  defini- 
tion of  retardation. 

Accepting  this  definition  of  retardation,  our  figures  suggest 
two  facts  not  hitherto  sufficiently  emphasized.  There  is  no  sup- 
port whatever  in  fact  for  the  doctrine  that  the  retarding  force  is 
greater  in  the  early  than  in  the  later  grades  (grade  i  being  left 
out  of  the  question).  Indeed,  the  same  pupil  will  commonly 
spend  a  considerably  longer  time  in  grades  6,  7,  and  8  than  in 
grades  2,  j,  and  4.  Certain  pupils  are  not  retarded  in  grades 
6,  7, and  S  for  the  sole  reason  that  they  are  not  there  to  be  retarded 
— they  have  been  eliminated.    If  all  pupils  stayed  in  school  until 


V 


32  Educational  Administration 

twenty,  and  the  present  standards  of  promotion  were  maintained, 
retardation  would  be  measurably  greater  in  grades  6,  7,  and  8, 
than  in  grades  2,  3,  and  4. 

In  these  facts  of  promotion  and  failure  there  is  no  support 
whatever  for  the  doctrine  that  retardation  by  non-promotion 
at  the  end  of  the  year  is  an  injustice  to  the  pupil  retarded.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  there  is  probably  far  more  injustice  done  to  the 
gifted  one-seventh  who  are  not  promoted  "doubly," — i.  e.  allowed 
to  complete  a  grade  in  less  than  a  year — than  is  done  to  the  one- 
seventh  who  fail  of  promotion  in  one  year.  Systems  of  promotion 
need  to  be  fitted  to  individual  differences  in  capacity — to  be  made 
more  flexible — rather  than  to  be  made  easier  for  those  who  now 
fail.  It  is  of  course  true  that  teachers  may  exaggerate  the  impor- 
tance of  satisfactory  achievement  in  one  grade  as  a  prerequisite 
for  success  in  the  following  grade,  that  they  may  exaggerate  the 
bad  effects  upon  the  zeal  of  a  school  from  treating  competent  and 
incompetent  pupils  alike  in  promotion,  and  that  they  may  even 
be  stupidly  unjust  in  a  few  cases.  But  with  rare  exceptions, 
teachers  refuse  promotion  to  a  pupil  only  because  they  honestly 
think  he  is  not  fit  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  grade  and  that  it  is 
not  for  the  common  good  to  let  him  attempt  it;  and  in  a  majority 
of  cases  they  are  right.  Special  industrial  and  trade  schools  in 
which  pupils  who  make  slow  progress  in  the  typical  elementary 
schools  could  be  given  a  trial  at  another  sort  of  education,  would 
be  more  to  the  advantage  of  the  eleven-year-old  pupils  now 
found  in  the  third  grade,  the  twelve-year-olds  in  the  fourth,  and 
the  thirteen-year-olds  in  the  fifth  grade,  than  such  a  relaxation  of 
standards  in  the  typical  school  as  would  allow  the  less  scholarly 
children  to  progress  in  it  at  the  speed  now  expected  of  the  modal 
child. 

Promotion  and  Elimination 

We  can  estimate  the  number  of  pupils  who  continue  to  any 
given  grade  in  two  ways.     What  these  are  will  be  clearer,  if  we 


Promotion,  Retardation,  and  Elimination  33 

take  first  an  arbitrarily  simple  case  and  analyze  it.  Suppose  first 
that  for  thirty  years  or  so  the  population  of  a  community  is  sta- 
tionary, that  no  one  dies  before  twenty-five,  that  there  is  no 
immigration  or  emigration,  that  one  hundred  pupils  begin  school 
each  year,  that  every  one  stays  in  school  until  the  end  of  the  high 
school,  and  that  every  one  begins  at  the  beginning  and  spends 
just  one  year  in  each  grade.  Then  the  number  of  pupils  in  each 
grade  will  be  one  hundred.  Suppose  that  in  each  grade  all  of 
those  entering  it  spend  just  two  years;  the  number  in  each  grade 
will  be  two  hundred,  or  twice  as  large  as  the  number  beginning 
school  in  one  year.  Suppose  that  in  each  grade  84  per  cent  of 
those  entering  it  stay  just  one  year,  and  16  per  cent  just  two 
years.  After  such  action  has  been  under  way  long  enough,  the 
numbers  in  all  the  grades  will  still  be  alike,  but  each  will  be  one 
hundred  and  sixteen,  or  16  per  cent  larger  than  the  number 
beginning  school  in  any  one  year. 

Suppose  now  that  of  those  entering  each  grade  84  per  cent 
stay  just  one  year  and  16  per  cent  just  two  years,  and  al§o  that  in 
every  year  of  the  thirty  years  one-half  of  the  children  in  the  sixth 
grade  in  June  leave  school.  Then  we  should  have  as  the  relative 
sizes  of  our  grades  in  the  middle  of  thirty  year  period  116,  116, 
116, 116, 116, 116,  58,  58,  58,  58,  etc.  The  proportion  which  grade 
seven  was  of  any  early  grade  would  represent  the  proportion  of 
pupils  beginning  school  who  continue  to  the  seventh  grade,  which 
is,  of  course,  one-half.  The  proportion  which  the  seventh  grade 
was  of  the  number  beginning  school  in  one  year  (58  per  cent)  would 
be  an  overestimate  of  the  proportion  continuing  in  school  to  the 
seventh  grade,  for  the  same  reason  that  the  process  in  the  sixth 
grade  would  give  116  per  cent  continuing  in  school.  What  is  re- 
quired is  the  proportion  which  the  number  beginning  the  seventh 
grade  in  one  year  is  of  the  number  beginning  school  in  one 
year.  This  case  may  be  generalized  in  the  form  of  two  laws: — 
(i)  Disregarding  growth  of  population,  immigration,  emigration, 


34  Educational  Administration 

and  death,  if  the  rate  of  progress  in  a  grade  of  those  entering  it — 
i.  e.  the  frequency  and  degree  of  their  retardation  or  acceleration, 
— is  equal  for  all  grades,  any  decrease  of  a  later  as  compared  with 
an  earlier  grade  is  due  to  elimination;  and  (2)  Disregarding  as 
before  all  factors  save  retardation  and  elimination,  if  in  any 
grade  there  is  an  excess  of  retardation  over  acceleration,  the  num- 
ber of  those  found  in  that  grade  at  the  beginning  of  one  year, 
if  there  has  been  zero  elimination,  will  be  over  100  per  cent  of 
those  beginning  school  in  one  year,  and  by  an  excess  proportion- 
ate to  the  excess  of  retardation  in  that  grade. 

It  is  therefore  obvious  that  the  percentage  of  pupils  beginning 
school  who  are  retained  to  any  grade,  cannot  be  measured  by 
the  percentage  which  the  pupils  in  that  grade  are  of  the  number 
beginning  school  in  one  year.  If  the  latter  figure  is  taken  as  a 
base,  the  other  figure  must  be  those  beginning  tJiat  grade  in  one 
year. 

If  retardation  is  equal  in  all  grades,  then,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
numbers  in  the  grades  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  give  us,  by 
their  differences,  the  elimination  (disregarding  growth  of  popula- 
tion, etc.) .  If  it  is  unequal,  we  must  correct  for  it.  We  have  shown 
that  it  is  approximately  equal  from  the  second  grade  to  the  third 
year  of  the  high  school  inclusive,  in  the  sense  that  in  any  June  the 
proportion  of  pupils  destined,  if  they  stay  in  school,  to  repeat  the 
grade,  is  for  these  grades  in  order  .122,  .14,  .1475,  .16,  .1425,  .15, 
.125,  .21,  .20,  .16.  But  it  is  likely  that  those  so  destined  will  leave 
school  before  the  next  year's  enrollment  record  is  taken,  more 
often  than  will  those  who  did  not  fail;  and  it  is  likely  that  this 
excess  eHmination  of  those  who  fail  will  be  greater  in  the  higher 
grades  than  in  the  lower. 

This  implies  the  possible  need  of  a  second  correction,  for  the 
excess  elimination  of  non-promoted  over  promoted  pupils,  and 
for  the  increase  in  this  excess  as  we  pass  to  later  and  later  years. 

[Here  follows,  in  the  original  report,  an  account  of  the  available 


Promotion,  Retardation,  and  Elimination  35 

facts  for  the  calculation  of  the  elimination  of  pupils  who  fail 
of  promotion.] 

On  the  whole  I  estimate  that,  of  pupils  failing  of  promotion 
in  the  last  grammar  grade,  about  one-third  are  eliminated  before 
the  next  year's  enrollment  is  counted ;  of  pupils  failing  in  the  next 
to  the  last  grammar  grade,  about  one-fourth;  of  pupils  in  the 
sixth  grade,  about  one-fifth;  and  of  pupils  in  the  fifth  grade  about 
one-sixth.  If  these  estimates  are  fair,  the  failures  in  grade  six, 
seven,  and  eight  continue  to  the  following  year  at  least  eight- 
tenths  as  often  as  those  promoted.  At  all  events,  Mr.  Ayres  is 
certainly  wrong  in  supposing  that  only  "a  few — a  very  few — 
pupils  get  to  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade,  fail  of  promotion,  and 
repeat  the  work  of  the  grade."  ^  In  Galesburg  about  half  of  the 
last  grammar  grade  is  made  up  of  such  repeaters,  and  in  Kansas 
City  about  one-eighth.  In  Springfield  about  half  of  those  failing 
repeat  the  grade,  and  in  Williamsport  four-fifths. 

[The  rest  of  the  original  report  is  given  up  to  an  estimate  of 
the  elimination  grade  by  grade  from  the  comparison  of  the  num- 
ber enrolled  in  any  grade  with  the  number  beginning  school  in 
one  year  the  appropriate  number  of  years  before.  The  errors 
made  by  Ayres  in  the  use  of  this  method  are  pointed  out  together 
with  the  resulting  constant  error  in  his  estimates  of  eUmination. 
I  note  here  only  the  essential  procedure  in  the  method.] 

Call  the  number  of  pupils  at  the  beginning  of  one  year  in  grades 
two,  three,  four,  and  five.  Pop.  2,  Pop.  3,  Pop.  4,  and  Pop.  5, 
respectively. 

Call  the  numbers  failing  in  one  year,  f2,  f3,  i^,  and  f5,  respec- 
tively. 

Call  the  numbers  promoted  in  one  year,  p2,  p3,  p4,  and  p5, 
respectively. 

Call  the  numbers  skipping  one  of  these  grades  in  one  year, 
S2,  S3,  S4,  and  55,  respectively. 

^  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in  our  Schools,  p.  93. 


36  Educational  Administration 

Call  the  numbers  eliminated  from  school  otherwise  than  by- 
death,  in  the  one  year  before  reaching  the  grade,  e2,  €3,  e4,  and  e5, 
respectively. 

Then,  disregarding  increase  of  population,  death,  and  migration 
into  and  out  of  the  school  system, 

(i)         Pop.  3  =  p2  +  £3  +  S2  —  S3  —  es 

(2)  Pop.  4  =  p3  +  f4  +  S3  —  S4  —  64 

(3)  Pop.  s  =  p4  +  £5  +  S4  —  S5  —  65 

Call  the  number  beginning  school  in  one  year,  A, 
Then: 


Pop.   2 

A 
Pop- 3 

A 
Pop.  4 


=  R2,  a  per  cent  to  be  determined  by  observation 

=  R4  "  "  "  etc. 


From  the  present  study,  we  have  found: 

P2    =    87.7  Pop.   2  £2    =    12.3  Pop.   2 

P3  =  86.0  Pop.  3  £3  =  14.0  Pop.  3 

P4  =  85.2  Pop.  4  £4  =  14.8  Pop.  4 

P5  =  84.0  Pop.  5  £5  =  16.0  Pop.  5 

If  we  assume  that  S2  =  S3  =  S4  =  S5  (approximately),  equations 
(i),(2)  and  (3)  become  (approximately): 

R3  A  =  87 . 7  Ro  A  +  14.0  R3  A—  63 
R4  A  =  86.0  R3  A  +  14.8  R4  A—  64 
R5  A  =  85 .  2  R4  A  +  14.3  R5  A—  65 

Whence  €3,  e5  and  e5  can  be  calculated,  subject  to  further 
corrections  for  skipping,  the  birth  and  death  rates,  migration 
into  and  out  of  the  community  concerned,  public-private-school 
transfers  and  the  like. 


§  4-  The  Incidence  of  Retardation 

In  the  previous  section  attention  was  called  to  the  common 
opinion  that  the  course  of  study  was  so  arranged  as  to  be  specially 
likely  to  require  two  years  per  grade  in  the  early  grades.  It  was 
shown  that,  on  the  contrary,  failure  of  promotion  would,  if  pres- 
ent standards  were  maintained  and  if  all  pupils  stayed  in  school 
to  finish  the  elementary  school,  be  less  frequent  in  the  lower  than 
in  the  higher  grades. 

This  Dr.  Blan  ('ii)  has  verified  for  certain  cities  by  a  study 
of  the  individual  educational  histories  of  pupils  as  reported  by 
themselves,  verified  from  school  records  so  far  as  possible. 

His  facts  are  shown  in  Tables  6,  7,  8,  and  9,  Table  6  shows  the 

frequency  of  non-promotion  in  each  grade  in  the  case  of  pupils 

who  were  known  to  have  progressed  in  school  to  the  eighth  grade. 

Thus  taking  the  top  line  of  entries  in  Table  6,  we  read  that 

of  the  pupils  in  the  eighth  grade  of  certain  schools  in  New  York 

City  who  had  remained  in  the  same  school  from  the  time  they 

began  school,  9.5  per  cent  had  (according  to  their  testimony) 

been  held  back  in  grade  7,  8.2  per  cent  had  been  held  back  in 

grade  6,  5.5  per  cent  in  grade  5,  4.1  per  cent  in  grade  4,  and  so  on. 

TABLE  6; 
Per  Cents  of  Eighth  Grade  Pupils  F.mling  of  Promotion  in  Preceding 

Grades 


Cities 

Grades 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

New  York. .  .  . 

9-5 

8.2 

5-5 

41 

3-9     \ 

1.6 

1.2 

Paterson 

7-9 

50 

4.6 

4-3 

30 

2.4 

2.6 

Elizabeth.  .  .  . 

9.2 

2.1 

2.1 

4.2 

4  9 

3-5 

3-5 

Plainfield  .... 

20.0 

10.8 

10. 0 

5-4 

6.2   : 

7-7 

30.8 

East  Orange  . 

14.9 

7.0 

4.4 

4-4 

2.6 

0.9 

3-5 

Medians  .... 

9  5 

7.0 

4.6 

4  3 

1 
3  9     i 

2.4 

3  5 

37 


38 


Educational  Administration 


Table  7  shows  the  frequency  of  non-promotion  in  each  grade 
in  the  case  of  pupils  known  to  have  progressed  in  school  to  the 
seventh  grade. 

Tables  8  and  9  show  similarly  the  history  of  the  non-promotion 
in  the  case  of  pupils  found  in  grades  6  and  5.  Throughout,  non- 
promotion  is  for  the  same  student  more  freqtient,  the  later  the  grade. 
Dr.  Blan  says: — 

TABLE  7 

Per  Cents  of  Seventh  Grade  Pupils  Failing  of  Promotion  in  the  Seventh 
AND  Preceding  Grades 


Cities 

Grades 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

New  York.  .  . 

12.2 

8.1 

7.3 

5.8 

3.9 

2.0 

2.2 

Paterson 

8.1 

5-3 

6.3 

4.8 

3  9 

2.9 

2.8 

Elizabeth  .  .  . 

12.4 

4-7 

4-1 

2.6 

4.1 

5.7 

7.8 

Plainfield .... 

14.0 

18.4 

7.2 

6.8 

5-3 

6.3 

30.0 

East  Orange . 

II. 4 

7.6 

8.9 

6.3 

2-5 

3-8 

S.I 

Medians.  .  . . 

12.2 

7.6 

72 

58 

3  9 

38 

51 

TABLE   8 

Per  Cents  of  Sixth  Grade  Pupils  Failing  of  Promotion  in  the  Sixth 
and  Preceding  Grades 

Cities 

Grades 

6        1       5 

4 

3         1        2        1        I 

New  York 

10.2         10.5 

7-7 

7.2 

4.9            2.6 

Paterson 

10.3 

6.5 

4.8 

6.2 

3-2 

3-5 

Elizabeth 

12.3 

10.2 

9.8 

5.3 

3-7 

4-1 

Plainfield 

16. 1 

10.4 

8.7 

6.5 

7.0 

32.2 

East  Orange 

13.8 

7-7 

4.6 

6.2 

6.2 

7.  7 

Medians '     12.3         10.2 

77     1      6.2     !      49     '      41 

The  Incidence  of  Retardation 


39 


TABLE  9 

Per  Cents  of  Fifth  Grade  Pupils  Failing  in  the  Fifth  and  Preceding 

Grades 


Cities 

Grades 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

New  York 

II. 2 

9.2 

9.6 

6.6 

50 

Paterson 

9-4 

S-9 

6.5 

5-2 

4.8 

Elizabeth 

19. o 

12. 1 

lO.I 

8.1 

7.2 

Plainfield 

15.2 

^i-2, 

6.3 

5-7 

39-2 

East  Oranpe 

10.  2 

7.2 

7-2 

10.2 

8.2 

Medians 

II. 2 

9.2 

72 

6.6 

.7.2 

"That  the  pupils  find  the  lower  much  easier  than  the  upper 
grades  is  the  definite  tendency  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  tables. 
Table  6  indicates  the  seventh  grade  with  a  median  of  9.5  per  cent 
as  having  been  the  most  difficult  grade  for  the  present  eighth 
grade  pupils.  Table  7  indicates  the  seventh  grade  again  with  a 
median  of  12.2  per  cent  as  the  most  difficult  grade  for  the  present 
seventh  grade  pupils.  In  Table  8  the  sixth  grade  pupils  show  the 
largest  percentages  of  non-promotion  in  their  present  grade.  The 
progress  of  the  fifth  grade  pupils  according  to  Table  9  is  impeded 
more  in  the  fifth  grade  than  in  any  of  the  preceding  grades. 
In  grades  five,  six,  and  especially  seven,  the  chances  of  retarda- 
tion in  the  case  of  any  given  pupil  are  decidedly  more  than  in  any 
of  the  other  grades.  The  pupil  who  is  fortunate  enough  to  with- 
stand the  strain  of  the  difficult  seventh  grade  is  practically  offered 
the  assurance  of  success  on  entrance  to  the  comparatively  easy 
graduating  class. 

"  Taken  generally  the  grammar  grades  exert  much  more  pres- 
sure on  the  pupils  in  the  matter  of  retardation,  than  do  the  pri- 
mary grades.     It  is  more  than  probable  that,  were  all  the  '  hold- 


40  Educational  Administration 

overs'  in  grades  one  through  four  to  remain  in  school,  the 
percentages  of  retardation  in  the  upper  grades  would  be  still 
larger. 

"  Tables  6  to  9  record  the  distribution  of  non-promotion  in 
hundredths  of  the  grammar  grade  initial  starters.  These  pupils 
represent  a  selected  class  as  compared  with  the  children  migrating 
from  school  to  school.  It  is  fair  to  suppose  that,  were  the  histories 
of  these  shifting  pupils  studied,  the  same  progressive  increase  in 
grade  frequency  would  be  the  characteristic  tendency. 

"The  records  of  the  initial  starters  were  obtained  from  the 
individual  pupils  in  class  room  and  were  checked  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  individual  history  cards.  These  cards  registered 
accurately  the  frequency  of  grammar  grade  retention.  In  the 
case  of  non-promotion  in  the  primary  grades,  where  the  official 
records  were  not  obtainable,  errors  of  memory  would  necessitate 
some  correction  of  the  recorded  percentages.  Even  with  a  gen- 
erous corrective  allowance  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  classes  would  still  be  progressively  harder  from  the  first  to 
the  last  year  of  the  school.  At  any  rate  the  burden  of  proof  rests 
upon  those  who  fancy  that  a  pupil  is  more  Hkely  to  suffer  retarda- 
tion in  early  than  in  late  grades."    ['11,  p.  108.] 


§  5-  The  Causes  of  Retardation  and  Acceleration 

Dr.  C.  H.  Keyes  ['ii]  has  studied  the  effect  upon  a  pupil's 
rate  of  progress  through  the  grades  of:  Age  at  entrance  to 
school,  absence,  visual  defects,  family  conditions  (including 
heredity)  over  which  the  schools  have  little  control,  and  other 
influences.  His  study  concerns  the  school  population  of  a  single 
city,  Hartford,  during  recent  years.  Under  the  administrative 
arrangements  of  that  city  at  that  time  the  pupils  who  repeated 
one  or  more  grades,  those  who  neither  repeated  nor  skipped,  and 
those  who  skipped  one  or  more  grades,  manifested  the  differences 
and  absences  of  difference  shown  in  Table  lo.^ 

TABLE   lo 

The  Comparison  of  Accelerated,  "  Normal  "  and  Retarded  Pupils  in  Age 
AT  Entrance  to  School,  Etc. 


Median  age  at  entrance  to  Grade  i 

Per  cent  entering  under  5)4  yrs.  old 

Per  cent  entering  over  y}^  yrs.  old 

Average  annual  loss  in  days 

Per  cent  losing  4  wks.  or  more  in  some  one 

year 

Per  cent  with  defective  eyes 

Per  cent  changing  schools  in  the  year  in 

question 

Per  cent  from  non-English  sp)eaking  homes 
Average  deportment  ranking  for  6  years . 
Per  cent  of  each  class  in  the  system  .... 


Arrests 

Nonnals 

Acceler- 
ates 

Honors 

6.2 

6.2 

6.4 

6.2 

S-9 
II. 4 
12.3 

5-7 

4-2 

10.2 

2-3 

9-S 
9-7 

1-4 
2.0 
6.8 

76.6 
32. 

68.4 

25- 

66.6 
14. 

45-3 
16. 

40. 
40. 
86. 

24- 

26. 

27-5 
86.6 
46. 

14- 
17- 
92. 

30- 

0. 
27. 
93- 

The  influence  of  irregularity  of  attendance  would  be  much 
clearer  if  measured  also  by  the  different  probabilities  of  arrest 

'  Quoted  from  page  54  of  Progress  Through  the  Grades  of  City  Schools. 

41 


42  Educational  Administration 

(i)  for  pupils  absent  for  different  lengths  of  time  in  the  year  pre- 
ceding that  in  which  they  repeat  a  grade,  (2)  for  pupils  absent 
different  lengths  of  time  in  the  two  years  preceding,  and  (3)  for 
pupils  absent  different  lengths  of  time  in  the  three  years  preced- 
ing, and  so  on.  Dr.  Keyes  gives  data  from  which  the  first  of 
these  probabilities  can  be  approximately  estimated.  They  are 
as   follows: 

Ten  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifteen  year-records  were 
taken,  3623  from  children  who  at  some  time  skipped  a  grade, 
3000  from  children  who  neither  skipped  nor  repeated,  and 
3592  from  children  who  at  some  time  repeated  a  grade. 

8,910  of  the  10,215  showed  absences  of    o  to  19  days 
648  "     "        "  "  "        "  20  "  29     " 

303  "     "         "  "  "        "  30   "  39     " 

149  "     "         "  "  "        "  40  "  49     " 

306  "     "  •      "  "  "        "  50  days  or  more 

I  cannot  ascertain  from  Dr.  Keyes'  report  how  many  of  those 
absent  o  to  20  days  failed  of  promotion  that  year.  Of  those 
absent  20-30  days,  92,  or  14  per  cent,  failed  of  promotion;  of 
those  absent  30-40  days,  45,  or  15  per  cent,  failed  of  promotion; 
of  those  absent  40-50  days,  20,  or  14  per  cent,  failed;  of  those 
absent  50  days  or  more,  152,  or  50  per  cent,  failed.^  The  last 
group,  of  course,  included  many  who  entered  the  first  grade  and 
were  withdrawn,  or  who  were  later  kept  out  of  school  for  a  very 
large  fraction  of  the  year.  Consequently  its  percentage  is  not 
directly  comparable  with  the  other  percentages. 

Dr.  Keyes'  data  also  permit  us  to  calculate  similar  probabili- 
ties for  the  class  of  pupils  who  at  some  time  do  have  to  repeat  a 
grade.    Given  the  kind  of  pupil  who,  at  some  time  in  his  school 

1  Any  prospective  reader  of  Dr.  Keyes'  report  should  note  that  his  Table  28, 
p.  41,  is  in  error,  by  reason  of  a  slip  whereby  he  added  in  as  "arrests  in  the  year"  all 
the  data  for  "normals"  absent  20  days  or  more. 


8si   " 

"  lo-ig  " 

231   " 

"  20-29  " 

114  " 

"  30-39  " 

S4   " 

"  40-49  " 

aog  " 

"  so  and  over 

The  Causes  of  Retardation  and  Acceleration  43 

,  course,  fails  to  meet  the  requirements  for  promotion,  what  effect 
has  absence?    For  such  pupils: 

1,797  cases  of  o-  9  days  absence  resulted  in  repetition  of  that  year's  work  in  14    %  of  the  cases 

'  20     "  "    " 

'40     "  "    " 

'39+"  "    " 

'37     "  "    " 

'73     "  "    " 

For  such  pupils,  loss  of  50-150  days  of  school  is  thus  shown 
to  increase  the  chance  of  arrest  that  year  by  87  per  cent  over 
what  it  is  for  one  who  is  absent  from  20  to  50  days.  Loss  of 
from  20  to  50  days  apparently  increases  the  chance  of  arrest  that 
year  by  130  per  cent  over  what  it  is  for  one  who  is  absent  o  to 
20  days. 

On  the  whole,  the  effect  of  absence  is  small  until  very  large 
amounts  of  absence  are  reached.  Since  these  large  amounts 
are  very  rare,  absence  does  not  by  itself  cause  any  large  frac- 
tion of  the  retardation  in  Hartford,  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  tenth 
of  it. 

Changing  schools  during  the  year  about  doubles  the  probability 
that  a  pupil  will  repeat  the  work  of  the  year  in  question.  Since, 
according  to  Dr.  Keyes,  a  change  of  school  is  about  eight  or  nine 
times  as  frequent  as  a  loss  of  50  or  more  days  of  attendance  a 
year,  the  former  seems  a  greater  force  in  the  production  of  retarda- 
tion. Greater  still  is  the  condition  of  the  pupil  as  to  heredity  and 
home  environment,  which  the  school  administration  can  hardly 
be  expected  to  control. 

"It  was  found  that  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  613  accelerates 
were  furnished  by  one-fifteenth  of  the  families  represented  in  this 
class,  and  similarly  that  almost  one-fourth  of  the  arrests  came 
from  one-fourteenth  of  the  families  represented.  The  detailed 
results  are  shown  in  Table  n; 


44 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   II 
Siblings  Among  Accelerates  and  Arrests 


Accelerates 

Arrests 

34         17  pairs 

2  Brothers 

28  pairs 

56 

42         21  pairs 

2  Sisters 

II  pairs 

22 

42         21  pairs 

Brotiier  and  Sister 

28  pairs 

56 

IS           5  trios 

2  Brothers,  i  Sister 

3  trios 

9 

3           I  trio 

3  Brothers 

I  trio 

3 

3           I  trio 

3  Sisters 

I  trio 

3 

139  Accelerates,  66  Families 


72   Families,  149  Arrests 


Thus  7.7  per  cent  of  the  families  occasion  24.5  per  cent  of  the 
arrests  and  6.8  per  cent  of  the  famihes  secure  24  per  cent  of  the 
double  promotions.  On  the  other  hand  only  thirty  mixed  con- 
tributions appear.    The  cases  are  as  follows: 

Brother  who  gains  and  sister  who  repeats 3  cases 

Sister  who  gains  and  brother  who  repeats 15     " 

Brother  who  gains  and  brother  who  repeats 3     " 

Sister  who  gains  and  sister  who  repeats 9    " 

Will  any  uniform  course  of  study  meet  these  conditions?  Must 
not  the  programs  of  study  in  every  grade  present  a  minimum  and 
a  maximum  schedule  of  work  to  be  done?  The  same  school 
nurture  can  never  produce  even  approximately  similar  results 
for  groups  varying  as  widely  in  nature  and  home  nurture  as  those 
represented  by  the  accelerates  and  arrests  involved  in  this 
study."  1 

Late  entrance  to  school  is  a  common  cause  of  over-ageness,  or 
retardation  in  the  customary  sense.  Since  those  who  enter  early 
lose  a  grade  no  more  frequently  than  those  entering  late,  the 
latter  obviously  tend  to  contribute  largely  to  the  over-age  pupils. 
Now  late  entrance  is  in  large  measure  a  secondary  result  of  orig- 

^  Progress  through  the  Grades  of  City  Schools,  p.  3of . 


The  Causes  of  Retardation  and  Acceleration  45 

inal  lack  of  scholarly  ability.  If  the  children  who  now  begin 
grade  i  at  seven  or  older  were  all  sent  at  six  or  younger,  very 
many  of  them  would  have  to  spend  two  or  more  years  in  that 
grade.  Many  of  them  are  now  kept  out  because  they  are  not 
intellectually  fit  to  go  to  school. 


§  6.  The  Causes  of  Elimination 

By  making  use  of  the  method  of  following  the  educational 
careers  of  individual  pupils  Dr.  J.  K.  Van  Denburg  ['ii]  was 
able  to  measure  the  actual  effects  of  various  possible  causes  of 
elimination  in  the  case  of  a  thousand  pupils  taken  at  random 
from  those  entering  the  public  high  schools  of  New  York  City 
in  February,  1906. 

He  got  from  each  pupil  a  record  like  the  following: 
( 1) 

Last  name  First  name  Initial  School  Year  of  birth       Month       Day 

(2)- 


Nuraber  Street  Borough  Number  Street  Borough 


(3)- 


(4)- 
\ 

(  s)- 

(6)- 
{  7)- 
(8)- 
(9)- 

(10)- 

(II)- 
(12)- 


From  G.  S.  No.     Borough  Father's  busines-  Father's  nationality 

(I)  (2) 


What  do  you  intend  to  do  for  a  living?  j  (i )  Are  four  years  of  H.  S.  necessary? 

(2)  Do  you  intend  to  stay  in  H.  S.  four  years? 

Older  brothers  or  sisters  Age  What  are  they  doing? 


Height  Weight  What  serious  illness  have  you  had?  When? 

Do  you  have  severe  headaches?  How  frequently?  Do  you  wear  glasses? 


He  got  further,  by  visiting  their  residences,  the  rentals  of  the 
apartments  in  which  they  lived,  in  the  case  of  about  half  of  the 
pupils.  He  got,  for  all  those  who  stayed  in  school  through  the 
first  term  of  five  months  or  long  enough  to  have  marks  for  scholar- 
ship given  to  them,  the  average  of  their  marks  for  the  first  term 
(or  such  part  of  it  as  was  the  basis  of  the  marks).    He  also  got, 

46 


The  Causes  of  Elimination  47 

from  the  four  teachers  who  taught  each  pupil  during  the  first 
tenn  (or  from  so  many  of  the  four  as  he  could),  ratings  of  the 
pupil  for  Ability,  Industry  and  Results.  These  qualities  were  de- 
fined as  follows  in  the  written  instructions  sent  to  the  teachers : 

You  axe  asked  to  grade  the  class,  a  list  of  whose  members  accompanies  this 
sheet,  according  to  their  relative  rank  so  far  as  you  can  judge  in  each  of  six  char- 
acteristics. In  order  that  this  work  may  be  uniform,  a  more  detailed  explanation 
of  the  sense  in  which  the  various  terms  are  used  is  given  below. 

1.  Ability.  Native  abihty  apart  from  success  or  failure  in  any  particular  sub- 
ject of  study.    Natural  brightness. 

2.  Industry.  Apphcation  to  school  work  whether  pleasant  or  xmpleasant. 
Determination  to  accomplish  an  assigned  task.    Stick-to-it-iveness. 

3.  Results.  General  efhciency.  Not  only  undertaking  a  task  or  a  line  of  work, 
but  actually  accomplishing  some  result  in  it.  (This  does  not  mean  reliability  or 
trustworthiness.)     .     .     . 

The  method  of  marking  is  as  follows:  For  example,  take  the  first  column.  Mark 
the  boy  or  girl  whose  native  abihty  you  consider  the  best  in  the  class  +  i-  The 
pupil  whose  native  ability  you  consider  the  poorest  mark  —  i.  In  the  same  way 
mark  the  next  to  the  naturally  brightest  +  2,  and  the  next  to  the  naturally  dullest 
—  2.  In  this  way  grade  so  far  as  possible  the  entire  cIjlss.  When  you  find  the  plus 
and  minus  rankings  to  approach  each  other  so  closely  that  you  are  unable  to  dis- 
tinguish any  differences,  mark  the  remaining  pupils  "M." 

He  then  kept  track  of  every  pupil  of  the  thousand  until  he  or  she 
left  high  school,  graduated,  or  remained  four  years  but  without 
graduating.  "Left  high  school"  means  left  the  public  high 
schools  of  New  York  City  without  any  evidence  being  present 
that  the  pupil  was  moving  to  some  other  city  or  transferring  to 
a  private  school  within  it.  The  approximate  date  of  each  pupil's 
leaving  was  determined. 

We  can  thus  answer  for  this  group  of  a  thousand  either  the 
question — "What  characterizes  the  pupils  who  stay  long  com- 
pared with  those  who  leave  early,  in  respect  to  age  at  entrance, 
wealth  of  family,  record  for  scholarship  in  the  first  few  months, 
etc.,  etc.?  " — or  the  questions —  "How  much  longer  do  rich  pupils 
stay   than  poor  pupils?"     "How  much  longer  do  pupils  of 


48 


Educational  Administration 


^Boys 
I/)  Girls 

12 

o 
§14 

^15 

-»- 
o 

«16 
< 

17 

%   Yes 
=     No 
■S  Blank 

V 

to 

V 

1   Yes 

1     No 
J  Blank 

c    Yes 

*    No 

o  Blank 

Fig.  4.  Expectation  of  high-school  life.  Median  length  for  boys  and  girls;  for 
children  12,  13,  14,  15,  16  and  17  years  old  at  entrance;  for  children  answering 
"yes,"  "no"  and  "blank"  to  "What  serious  illness  have  you  had?"  and  for 
children  answering  "yes,"  "no,"  and  "blank"  to  "Do  you  have  severe  head- 
aches?"   Each  centimeter  equals  one  term  of  five  months. 


American  born  fathers  stay  than  pupils  whose  fathers  were  born 
in  Ireland?"  etc.,  etc. 

The  former  method  is  the  one  used  in  the  main  in  Dr.  Van 


The  Causes  of  Elimination 


49 


S  Russia 
J.  Qsrmanif 
S    U.S.A. 
^  Ireland 

s 

%  u,      Law 
4.>- 
■  5  CQ  Engineering 

T3  o  Undecided 

0  §■  Business 

CLO 

01  o 
D=  O 

S.b  Teachinq 
•JVD  ^3, 

^  §  Undecided 

o  5^tenography 
«)  )i. 

I£  o 

§       Yes 
o 

S       No 
o 

Undecided 


Yes 

No 

Undecided 


^ 


Fig.  s.  Expectation  of  high-school  life.  Median  lengths  for  children  of  Russian 
(Hebrew),  American,  German,  or  Irish  born  fathers;  for  boys  reporting  law, 
engineering,  "undecided"  or  business  as  their  chosen  work,  and  for  girls  re- 
porting teaching,  "undecided"  and  stenography;  and  for  boys  and  for  girls 
(boys,  above;  girls,  below)  answering  "yes,"  "no"  and  "xmdecided"  to 
the  question,  "Are  four  years  of  high  school  necessary?" 

Denburg's  report,  but  data  are  there  given  which  permit  the 
latter  sort  of  questions  to  be  answered.  So  I  have  computed  the 
expectation  of  high-school  Ufe  according  to  whether  or  not  cer- 


50 


Educational  Administration 


Yes 

'No 


•4:  o  Undecided 


Q. 


Yes 


"C  ci->    No 
(^^  Undecided 


7i-17i 
||37i-72i 


.£     ^Tenth 

S2  « "^  Bottom 
^  ^  <  Tenth 
o  o 
o  o 

(U  (U 

2C  ?-  Top 
^^  F  Tenfh 

J^  -^  Bottom 
^o^   Tentti 

^•^ 

^  «  if]  Bottom 
£:f  £  Tenth 


Top 
Tenth 


Fig.  6.  Expectation  of  high-school  life.  Median  lengths  for  boys  and  girls  answer- 
ing "yes,"  "no"  and  "undecided"  to  the  question,  "Do  you  intend  to  stay 
in  high  school  four  years?  ";  for  boys  and  children  with  home  rentals  of  $io-$2o, 
$2o-$3o,  $3o-$4o,  $4o-$7o  and  over  $70  per  month;  and  for  the  top  and  bottom 
approximate  tenths  in  ability,  in  industry  and  in  results  as  estimated  by 
teachers. 

tain  causes  are  acting.    The  results  are  presented  clearly  to  the 
eye  in  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  7.    In  all  these  diagrams,  one  centimeter 


The  Causes  of  Elimination 


51 


Top 

^Third 
-     .-t  Middle 

.£     -^  Third 
•^       Top 

•g's  ^ThiW 

^|"§  Middle 

.2JI  -a  Third 
8  E -Bottom 
^1       fhird 

1=^  «,  Thrift 
3  Middle 

2  Third 
tt  Bottom 

Third 

1  90-100 

1  80-89 

c  70-79 

%  60-69 

1  50-59 
8  Under 

^    '' 

Fig.  7.  Expectation  of  high-school  life.  Median  lengths  for  the  top,  middle  and 
bottom  thirds  in  ability,  industry  and  results  as  estimated  by  teachers,  and  for 
children  whose  first  term's  marks  in  scholarship  were: — below  50,  from  50  to 
59,  from  60  to  69,  from  70  to  79,  from  80  to  89,  and  from  90  to  100. 

equals  one  term  or  five  months.  At  the  top  and  at  the  bottom  of 
each  page  are  scales  eight  centimeters  long  representing  the 
eight  terms,  or  four  years,  or  forty  months.  Each  of  the  lines 
between  represents  the  median  length  of  stay,  in  the  New  York 
public  high  schools,  of  pupils  characterized  by  the  statement  at 
the  left.  Thus  Fig.  4  shows  that  being  a  girl  rather  than  a  boy 
adds  one  and  a  third  months,  or  eight  per  cent,  to  the  expecta- 
tion of  high -school  Ufe;  each  year  that  a  pupil  is  under  14  at  en- 


52  Educational  Administration 

trance  adds  to,  and  each  year  that  a  pupil  is  over  14  at  en- 
trance takes  away  from,  his  expectation  of  Hfe,  pupils  12  years 
old  at  entrance  staying  three  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  those  17 
years  old,  and  nearly  one  and  three-fourths  times  as  long  as  those 
16  years  old.  Those  who  report  themselves  at  entrance  as  hav- 
ing had  serious  illness  stay  longer  than  those  who  do  not. 
Habitual  severe  headaches  make  no  considerable  difiference. 
Those  who  wear  glasses  stay  two-thirds  of  a  term  longer  thin 
those  who  do  not. 

The  diagrams  tell  their  own  story  better  than  words.  If  a 
record  such  as  Dr.  Van  Denburg  got  from  these  thousand  pupils 
should  be  obtained  from  all  the  entering  pupils  of  New  York 
City's  public  schools,  we  could  prophesy  the  length  of  each  one's 
career  as  we  now  prophesy  the  temperature  of  a  day  in  December, 
the  daily  horse-power  to  be  got  from  a  stream,  or  the  length  of  a 
patient's  illness.  If  we  knew  nothing  at  all  of  a  pupil  entering 
in  February,  1906,  save  that  he  did  enter,  we  could  foretell  that 
he  had  an  even  chance  of  staying  three  and  two-fifths  terms,  or  17 
months.  Know  also  that  his  father  was  born  in  Russia,  and  you 
can  add  3  months  to  his  expectation.  Know  that  his  father  was 
born  in  Ireland  and  you  can  reduce  his  expectation  to  8.8  months, 
or  a  little  over  two-fifths  that  of  the  Russian  Hebrew.  Know 
that  a  boy  reports  himself  as  intending  to  be  a  lawyer,  and  you 
can  expect  him  to  stay  nearly  two  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  a 
boy  who  reports  himself  as  intending  to  go  into  business.  Know 
that  a  girl  intends  to  be  a  teacher,  and  her  expectation  of  high- 
school  life  is  over  three  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  that  of  a  girl 
intending  to  be  a  stenographer,  and  two  and  a  third  times  as  long 
as  that  of  a  girl  reporting  herself  as  "undecided."  The  mere  fact 
that  a  boy  or  girl  regards  a  high  school  course  as  necessary  for 
his  intended  work  in  life  more  than  doubles  his  expectation. 
The  mere  fact  that  a  pupil  reports  himself  as  expecting  to  com- 
plete the  course  gives  him  nearly  five  times  as  long  a  probable 


The  Causes  of  Elimination  53 

stay  as  the  pupil  who  expects  not  to  complete  it  (4.4  times  for 
boys  and  5.2  times  for  girls). 

Such  educational  probabilities  should  be  used  to  determine 
both  the  advice  and  the  treatment  given  to  individuals.  High 
school  principals  should,  so  far  as  time  allows,  get  such  an  initial 
record  from  each  pupil,  should  use  it  for  the  time  being  in  the 
light  of  Dr.  Van  Denburg's  study,  and  eventually,  by  following 
two  or  three  entering  classes  through  four  years,  calculate  the 
expectation  for  each  factor  in  their  own  communities. 

The  economic  condition  of  the  pupil  is  shown  to  be  relatively 
a  minor  factor.  The  wealthiest,  the  poorest,  and  those  with 
monthly  rentals  from  $27.00  to  $37.00  stay  in  school  about  equally 
long.  Practically  all  of  the  common  talk  about  the  economic 
factor  in  elimination  is  thus  shown  to  have  been  mere  speculation 
in  the  case  of  New  York  high  schools.  Is  it  perhaps  equally  so 
in  the  reader's  own  community? 

The  boy  or  girl  who  so  impresses  his  teachers  as  to  be  ranked 
in  the  top  tenth  of  the  entering  pupils  for  ability  will  stay  four 
and  a  quarter  times  as  long  as  the  one  who  is  so  ranked  in  the 
bottom  tenth.  A  rating  in  the  top  third  compared  with  one  in  the 
bottom  third  nearly  trebles  (2.7  times)  the  probable  high  school 
career.  An  average  mark  of  80  or  more  for  the  first  few  months 
means  a  stay  five  times  as  long  as  an  average  mark  below  50. 

These  school  marks  and  teachers'  judgments  of  ability  doubt- 
less measure  the  specialized  ability  to  do  well  in  scholarly  work, 
of  which  interest  in  the  high  school  tasks  is  a  large  component, 
rather  than  absolutely  general  ability  for  all  life's  work.  Just 
how  close  the  correlation  between  the  two  is  has  not  been  deter- 
mined. But  it  is  positive.  Consequently,  though  freely  admit- 
ting that  some  really  gifted  pupils  are  ranked  low  and  that  some 
pupils  whose  special  gifts  at  lesson-getting  conceal  their  essential 
stupidity  are  ranked  high,  it  is  nevertheless  certain  that  one  cause 
of  elimination  in  New  York  City  high  schools  is  relative  lack 
of  intellect. 


§  7-  The  Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School 

Grade 

The  pupils  who  are  grouped  together  for  instruction  in  the 
same  grade,  even  in  those  schools  which  are  administered  with 
more  than  usual  sagacity,  differ  greatly  in  abihty.  If  they  are 
measured  for  ability  in  arithmetic,  spelhng,  composition,  or  other 
school  studies,  or  in  such  tests  as  a  psychologist  finds  most  sig- 
nificant of  general  intellectual  efficiency,  the  variation  is  such 
that  some  pupils  in  the  grade  do  four  or  five  times  as  much  as 
others  in  a  given  time,  or  do  the  same  amount  with  a  far  smaller 
proportion  of  errors,  or  do  successfully  tasks  which  the  others 
cannot  master. 

It  is  indeed  the  case  that  some  pupils  in  the  third  grade  seem 
superior,  in  fitness  to  receive  fourth  grade  education,  to  a  ma- 
jority of  those  in  the  fourth  grade,  that  some  seem  superior  to  a 
fair  percentage  of  those  in  the  fifth  grade,  and  so  on.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  eight  school  grades,  as  administered  in 
even  the  most  progressive  cities,  do  not  even  approximately 
divide  the  school  population  into  eight  groups,  each  one  made  up 
of  pupils  fit  for  more  advanced  education  than  those  in  the 
previous  grade  are  fit  for. 

One  of  the  most  significant  demonstrations  of  this  failure  of 
school  grading  to  produce  a  series  of  groups — each  fairly  homo- 
geneous, and,  as  a  series,  differing  progressively  in  knowledge, 
power,  or  anything  else  significant  of  educational  advancement — 
is  given  in  Dr.  F.  G.  Bonser's  "Reasoning  Ability  of  Children  of 
the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  Grades."  ['10].  I  shall  quote,  with  com- 
ments, the  essential  facts  of  the  demonstration,  which  will  be 
found  also  to  suggest  other  facts  of  importance  in  the  management 
of  schools. 

54 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade  55 

Dr.  Bonser  measured  757  boys  and  girls  in  grades  4A,  5B,  5 A, 
6B,  and  6 A  (B  being  used  for  the  first,  or  lower,  half-year  of  a 
grade;  and  A,  for  the  second,  or  higher,  half),  in  respect  to  their 
achievements  in  the  following  tests : 

Tests  I  and  II 
I.  A.  Get  the  answers  to  these  problems  as  quickly  as  you  can. 

1.  If  f^  of  a  gallon  of  oil  costs  9  cents,  what  will  7  gallons  cost? 

2.  John  sold  4  sheep  for  $5  each.    He  kept  }4  of  the  money  and  with  the  other  yi 
he  bought  lambs  at  $2  each.    How  many  did  he  buy? 

3.  A  pint  of  water  weighs  a  pound.    What  does  a  gallon  weigh? 

4.  At  X2}4  cents  each,  how  much  more  will  6  tablets  cost  than  10  pens  at  5  cents 
each? 

5.  At  15  cents  a  yard,  how  much  will  7  feet  of  cloth  cost? 

I.  B. 

1.  A  man  whose  salary  is  $20  a  week  spends  $14  a  week.    In  how  many  weeks 
can  he  save  $300? 

2.  How  many  pencils  can  you  buy  for  50  cents  at  the  rate  of  2  for  5  cents. 

3.  A  man  bought  land  for  $100.    He  sold  it  for  $120,  gaining  $5  an  acre.    How 
many  acres  were  there? 

4.  A  man  spent  %  of  his  money  and  had  $8  left.    How  much  had  he  at  first? 

5.  The  uniforms  for  a  baseball  nine  cost  $2.50  each.    The  shoes  cost  $2  a  pair. 
What  was  the  total  cost  of  imiforms  and  shoes  for  the  nine? 

II.  A. 

1.  32  plus  what  number  equals  36? 

2.  If  John  had  15  cents  more  than  he  spent  to-day  he  would  have  40  cents.    How 
much  did  he  spend  to-day? 

3.  What  number  minus  7  equals  23? 

4.  If  James  had  4  times  as  much  money  as  George,  he  would  have  $16.    How 
much  money  has  George? 

5.  What  number  added  to  16  gives  a  nimiber  4  less  than  27? 

II.  B. 

1.  What  nvmiber  subtracted  12  times  from  30  will  leave  a  remainder  of  6? 

2.  If  a  train  travels  half  a  mile  in  a  minute,  what  is  its  rate  per  hour? 

3.  What  number  minus  16  equals  20? 


56  Educational  Administration 

4.  What  number  doubled  equals  2  times  3? 

5.  If  7  multiplied  by  some  number  equals  63,  what  is  the  number? 

In  the  original  blanks,  immediately  following  each  problem, 
space  was  left  for  its  solution. 

Controlled  Association 

For  controlled  association,  three  types  of  tests  were  used. 
First,  two  sets  of  ten  sentences  each,  III,  A,  a  and  b,  were  given 
with  a  significant  word  omitted  from  each  to  be  tilled  in  by  the 
pupil.  Second,  two  sets  of  ten  sentences  each.  III,  B,  a  and  b, 
were  given  in  each  of  which  two  significant  words  were  placed, 
one  above  the  other,  one  giving  a  correct  meaning  to  the  sentence, 
the  other  an  erroneous  meaning,  the  pupil  to  draw  a  line  through 
the  wrong  word  leaving  the  sentence  so  that  it  would  read  cor- 
rectly. Third,  three  sets  of  twenty  words  each,  IV,  A,  B,  and  C, 
were  given  to  pupils,  they  to  write  beside  each  respective  word  a 
word  just  its  opposite  in  meaning — the  familiar  "opposites"  test. 

Tests  III  and  IV 

III.  A.  a.  Complete  the  following  sentences  as  quickly  as  you 
can  by  filling  the  blank  spaces  with  appropriate  words: 

1.  always  comes  in  the  last  week  in  December. 

2.  A is  one  who  plays  a  musical  instrument. 


3.  The  city is  in  Russia. 

4.  are  large,  visible  bodies  of  watery  vapor  floating  about  in  the 

air. 

5.  used  for  building  houses  are  made  of  clay. 

6.  The  machine  used  on  a  railroad  for  drawing  cars  is  an . 

7.  is  the  most  useful  metal  for  blacksmiths. 

8.  live  and  swim  about  in  the  water. 

9.  Most  light,  summer  clothing  is  made  of goods. 

10.  is  a  holiday. 

III.  A.  b. 

1.  The  flesh  of  cattle  used  for  food  is  called . 

2.  The months  are  June,  July  and  August. 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade  57 

3.  The makes  it  light  during  the  day. 

4.  catch  many  mice  and  birds. 

5.  A is  a  large  stream  of  water  flowing  through  the  land. 

6.  Men  who  h've  in  the  country  and  till  the  soil  are  called . 

7.  is  a  mineral  which  we  burn. 

8.  The Ocean  is  east  of  the  United  States. 

9.  sell  sugar,  vegetables  and  other  foods. 

ID.  There  are hours  in  half  a  day. 

III.  B.  a.  As  quickly  as  you  can,  make  these  sentences  correct 
by  drawing  a  line  through  the  wrong  word  where  two  words  occur, 
one  above  the  other: 

shorter  ... 

1.  Days  are  i  in  summer  than  m  winter. 

up 

2.  Water  always  flows  ■         hill. 

more        ,      ,         . 

3.  Glass  breaks  j         easily  than  tin. 

4.  The  sun  rises  f^"^  ^^^  in  January  than  in  July. 

later 

harder 

5.  Iron  IS  g^jj.^^  than  wood. 

warmer 

6.  It  is      , ,       in  Florida  than  in  Maine. 

heavier 

7.  Anything  that  floats  is  i:„ut„_  than  water. 

more 

8.  Oranges  grow  .         satisfactorily  in  California  than  in  New  Jersey. 

shorter  . 

9.  Shadows  are  ,  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

more 
10.  Plants  grow  ,         readily  in  warm  sunshine  than  in  the  cool  shade. 


III.  B.  b. 

stronger 

1.  Men  are  usually  ™^goUgj.   than  women. 

less 

2.  A  pound  of  iron  is  worth  than  a  pound  of  copper. 


58 


Educational  Administration 


.  before     ,      ,      .  . 

3.  Christmas  comes    r         Thanksgivmg  day. 

warmer 

4.  Cotton  clothing  is  ,     ,        than  wool. 


coal  is  used  in  summer  than  in  winter. 


Less 

5.  More 

poorer 

6.  Bankers  arc  j.:„u„_  than  cab  drivers. 

More  .  . 

■p         horses  than  mules  are  used  for  driving  purposes. 

more 

8.  There  are  r  teachers  than  preachers. 

fewer  ^ 

more 

9.  Oranges  are  ,         sweet  than  lemons. 

lo.  More  .  .... 

y         bread  than  cake  is  eaten  in  this  city. 

IV.  As  quickly  as  you  can,  write  beside  each  of  these  words  a 
word  that  means  exactly  its  opposite: 


A. 

B. 

C. 

day 

great 

bad 

asleep 

hot 

inside 

absent 

dirty 

slow 

brother 

heavy 

short 

best 

late 

little 

above 

first 

soft 

big 

left 

black 

backwards 

morning 

dark 

buy 

much 

sad 

come 

near 

true 

cheap 

north 

dislike 

broad 

open 

poor 

dead 

round 

well 

land 

sharp 

sorry 

country 

east 

thick 

tall 

known 

full 

son 

something 

peace 

here 

stay 

few 

less 

push 

below 

mine 

nowhere 

enemy 

\ 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade  59 

Selective  Judgment 

Two  types  of  tests  were  used  for  selective  judgment.  First, 
two  sets,  V,  A  and  B,  of  two  series  each  of  ten  reasons  why  some 
given  fact  is  true,  some  of  which  reasons  are  correct,  the  others  in- 
correct or  irrelevant,  were  given.  The  pupil  was  to  select,  by 
checking,  the  correct  reasons.  Second,  there  were  given  similarly 
two  sets,  VI,  A  and  B.  of  three  series  each,  of  five  definitions 
for  a  given  thing  or  term,  some  of  which  were  correct,  the  others 
incorrect  or  irrelevant. 


Tests  V  and  VI 

V.  A.  The  following  reasons  have  been  given  to  show  why  New 
York  has  become  a  larger  city  than  Boston.  As  quickly  as  you 
can,  place  a  cross  hke  this,+  ,  before  each  reason  you  think  a 
good  one: 

1.  New  York  is  on  an  island. 

2.  More  foreigners  live  in  New  York  than  in  Boston. 

3.  New  York  is  on  a  large  river  coming  from  a  rich  agricultural  region. 

4.  Mr.  Rockefeller  has  a  fine  home  in  New  York. 

5.  New  York  has  more  churches  than  Boston. 

6.  New  York  has  better  communication  with  the  States  lying  to  the  west. 

7.  New  York  has  elevated  railroads. 

8.  New  York  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  fruit  and  agricultural  district. 

9.  New  York  is  nine  or  ten  years  older  than  Boston. 
ID.  New  York  has  a  republican  governor. 

V.  B.  These  reasons  have  been  given  to  show  that  oak  wood  is 
better  than  pine  for  making  furniture.    Check  the  good  reasons. 

1.  Oak  wood  is  harder  than  pine. 

2.  Oak  trees  have  acorns,  pine  trees  do  not. 

3.  Oak  wood  takes  a  finer  polish  than  pine. 

4.  Oak  trees  have  more  beautiful  leaves. 

5.  Oak  trees  make  good  homes  for  squirrels. 

6.  Pine  wood  will  not  last  so  long  as  oak. 


6o  Educational  Administration 

7.  Pine  is  more  easily  dented  and  defaced  than  oak. 

8.  When  polished  and  varnished,  oak  is  much  more  beautiful  than  pine. 

9.  Pine  trees  are  sometimes  used  for  Christmas  trees. 
10.  Oak  trees  are  easier  to  climb  than  pine  trees. 

V.  C.  The  following  reasons  have  been  given  to  show  why 
oranges  grow  better  in  Florida  than  in  New  Jersey.  Check  the 
good  reasons. 

1.  There  are  many  negroes  in  Florida  who  work  very  cheaply. 

2.  Florida  has  warm  summer  weather  almost  the  whole  year. 

3.  There  are  no  alligators  in  New  Jersey. 

4.  Florida  very  rarely  has  hard  frosts. 

5.  New  Jersey  is  not  so  large  as  Florida. 

6.  Florida  was  settled  earlier  than  New  Jersey. 

7.  New  Jersey  grows  many  fine  peaches. 

8.  Florida  has  a  very  moist,  warm  cUmate. 

9.  Florida  is  a  word  meaning  the  land  of  flowers. 
10.  Florida  is  a  popular  winter  resort. 

V.  D.  Among  these  reasons  why  horses  are  better  than  cattle 
for  driving  and  working  animals,  check  those  which  you  think 
are  good  reasons. 

1.  Horses  are  more  intelligent  than  cattle. 

2.  Cattle  are  not  so  tall  as  horses. 

3.  Horses  hke  com,  oats  and  hay. 

4.  Horses  are  much  more  active  and  walk  faster  than  cattle. 

5.  Cattle  are  extensively  used  for  food. 

6.  Horses  are  much  more  beautiful  and  graceful  than  cattle. 

7.  The  skins  of  horses  are  sometimes  made  into  gloves. 

8.  Horses  are  more  easily  trained  and  controlled  than  cattle. 

9.  President  Roosevelt  likes  to  ride  on  horseback. 

10.  Horses  have  more  rapid  and  varied  gaits  than  cattle. 


VI.  A.  In  the  following  definitions,  place  a  small  cross,  like 
this,+  ,  before  those  which  you  think  are  good  ones,  doing  it  as 
quickly  as  you  can. 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade  6i 

a.-  Definitions  of  a  shoe. 

1 .  A  portion  of  clothing. 

2.  Something  black  made  of  leather. 

3.  A  protective  covering  for  the  feet,  usually  made  of  leather,  having  a 
firm  bottom  or  sole  and  flexible  upper  portions,  an  opening  for  the  foot  being 
fastened  by  lacings,  buttons  or  buckles. 

4.  Something  to  wear  on  the  feet. 

5.  A  necessary  article  costing  from  one  to  five  or  six  dollars. 

b.  Definitions  of  an  island. 

1.  A  piece  of  land  out  in  the  water. 

2.  A  small  body  of  land. 

3.  A  body  of  land  entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

4.  Cuba  is  an  island. 

5.  A  portion  of  land  rising  above  the  surrounding  level. 

c.  Definitions  of  to  explode. 

1.  To  burst  suddenly  with  a  loud  noise. 

2.  To  knock  all  to  pieces. 

3.  To  make  a  very  loud  noise. 

4.  To  fill  the  air  with  a  tumultuous  roar. 
*     5.  To  blow  up. 

a.  Definitions  of  a  chair. 

1.  A  piece  of  household  furniture. 

2.  A  movable  seat  with  a  back  intended  for  one  person. 

3.  A  piece  of  furniture  on  which  to  sit. 

4.  Rocking  chairs  are  comfortable  chairs. 

5.  A  single  seat  having  a  back. 

b.  Definitions  of  to  write. 

1.  To  make  marks  with  a  pen  or  pencil. 

2.  To  make  characters  which  stand  for  ideas. 

3.  To  use  a  pen  or  pencil. 

4.  To  make  marks  on  any  kind  of  surface  with  any  kind  of  an  instrument 
which  will  express  one's  ideas  so  that  another  may  understand  them. 

5.  To  write  a  letter. 

c.  Definitions  of  a  buggy. 

1.  A  buggy  is  black. 

2.  A  buggy  is  something  to  ride  in. 

3.  A  buggy  is  a  light,  four  wheeled  vehicle,  with  or  without  a  top  or  cover- 
ing, designed  for  carrjnng  two  or  three  persons. 

4.  A  buggy  is  drawn  by  horses. 

5.  A  buggy  may  have  rubber  tires. 


62  Educational  Administration 

Literary  Interpretation 

For  literary  interpretation,  two  stanzas  of  poetry,  VII,  A  and 
B,  were  used,  the  pupil  to  write  the  meaning  of  each  in  his  own 
words.  These  poems  are  taken  from  a  third  reader  and  a  second 
reader  respectively,  each  from  a  different  standard  series  pub- 
lished within  a  decade  of  the  time  of  these  tests. 

Test  VII 

VII.  A.  Read  carefully  the  following  stanza,  then  write  its 
meaning  in  your  own  words. 

"This  little  rill,  that  from  the  springs 
Of  yonder  grove  its  current  brings, 
Plays  on  the  slope  awhile,  and  then 
Goes  prattling  into  groves  again. 
Oft  to  its  warbling  waters  drew 
My  little  feet,  when  Hfe  was  new." 

B.  Read  carefully  the  following  stanza,  then  write  its  meaning 
in  your  own  words: 

"Under  the  greenwood  tree, 
Who  loves  to  lie  with  me. 
And  tune  his  merry  note 
Unto  the  sweet  bird's  throat, 
Come  hither,  come  hither,  come  hither; 
Here  shall  he  see 
No  enemy 
But  winter  and  rough  weather. " 
[Bonser,  'lo,  pp.  3-8] 

Of  the  method  of  giving  these  tests,  Dr.  Bonser  writes:  "All 
of  the  tests  were  given  by  the  writer  or  under  his  direct  super- 
vision ....  The  greatest  care  was  used  to  preserve  the  most 
strict  uniformity  in  making  tests  and  it  is  believed  that  a  high 
degree  of  success  was  attained  in  this. 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade    63 

"Pupils  were  given  the  printed  papers  containing  the  questions, 
one  test  at  a  time,  face  downward,  upon  their  desks.  Space  was 
provided  upon  the  papers  for  all  answers.  Pupils  had  been  di- 
rected to  get  pencils  ready  for  writing  before  papers  were  distrib- 
uted. When  all  had  received  copies  of  the  test,  the  children  were 
told  to  turn  the  papers  over  and  to  write  their  names  and  ages 
at  their  last  birthday  at  the  top  of  the  pages,  but  to  make  no 
other  marks  upon  them  until  a  signal  to  begin  was  given.  The 
printed  directions  at  the  top  of  the  papers  were  read  aloud  to 
the  pupils  and  the  signal  to  begin  was  at  once  given  unless  experi- 
ence had  indicated  a  need  for  some  additional  word  of  explanation 
which  was  given  before  the  signal  to  begin.  .  .  .  When  the  first 
pupil  to  finish  had  completed  his  work,  in  all  of  the  tests  but 
that  of  IV,  the  opposites,  all  turned  the  papers  over,  face  down- 
ward, and  they  were  collected.  For  the  opposites,  two  minutes 
were  given  for  each  test."  [Bonser,  '10,  pp.  9-10.] 
The  test  occupied  two  days  separated  by  an  interval. 

Scoring 

"  Tests  I  and  II.  For  each  problem  in  arithmetic,  a  grade  of  2 
was  given  for  each  correct  solution.  If  a  two-step  problem,  and 
one  part  was  right,  the  other  not,  the  grade  given  was  i.  No 
detraction  was  made  for  inaccuracies  in  operations. 

"  Test  III.  In  the  filling  of  blanks,  and  the  choice  of  words,  a 
grade  of  i  was  given  for  each  correct  answer,  o  for  each 
wrong. 

"  Test  IV.  For  the  opposites,  2  was  given  for  the  correct  word, 
I  when  it  was  partly  right  in  meaning,  and  o  for  wrong  and 
omitted  words. 

"Tests  V  and  VI.  For  choice  of  reasons  and  definitions,  the 
scale  used  was  as  follows,  the  grade  in  each  case  being  the  alge- 
braic sum: 


64  Educational  Administration 

V.   A.  Numbers  3,  6,  and  8,  each  3  points;  i,  2,  5,  7,  and  9,  each  -i;  4  and  10, 
each  -2. 

B.  I,  3,  6,  7,  and  8,  each  2;  2,  4,  5,  9,  and  10,  each  -2. 

C.  2,  4,  and  8,  each  3;  i,  3,  7,  9,  and  10,  each  -i;  5  and  6  each  -2. 

D.  I,  4,  6,  8,  and  10,  each  2;  2,  3,  5,  7,  and  9,  each  -2. 
VI.   A.  a.  Number  3,  7  points;  4,  2;  i,  -2;  2,  -3;  5,  -4. 

b,  I,  2  points;  3,  5;  4,  1;  2  and  5,  each  -4.  ^ 

c.  I,  6  points;  5,  3;  2,  3,  and  4,  each  -3. 
B.  a.  2,  5  points;  3,  i;  5,  2;  i,  and  4,  each  -4. 

b.  2,  2  points;  4,  5;  5,  i;  i,  and  3,  each  -4. 

c.  2,  2  points;  3,  7;  1,4,  and  5,  each  -3. 

"  r65^  VII.  From  o  to  10  on  basis  of  estimated  merit  for  each 
part. 

"l^est  VIII.  Spelling.  Subtract  i  for  each  misspelled  word 
from  the  arbitrary  standard  of  15  for  each  of  the  two  sets  of 
papers  used."    [Bonser,  '10,  pp.  16,  17.] 

When  each  individual  is  thus  scored  for  each  test,  and  all  his 
scores  are  added  together,  the  different  grades  overlap  enormously 
as  shown  in  Table  12. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  (except  with  the 
opposite"  test)  the  time  allowed  in  each  grade  was  not  neces- 
sarily identical,  each  class  being  given  such  time  as  the  quickest 
person  in  it  required  to  complete  the  test.  Dr.  Bonser  does  not 
regard  the  time  factor  as  of  much  consequence,  in  view  of  the 
nature  of  the  tests,  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  lower  grades 
had  longer  time  and  so  are  credited  with  somewhat  better  rela- 
tive scores  than  they  would  have  obtained  if  all  grades  had 
been  given  in  every  test  some  constant  time. 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade  65 

TABLE   12 

The  Frequency  of  Each  Degree  of  Ability  in  Reasoning  in  the  Case  of 

Each  Grade 


Ability 


Number  of  Individuals 


Grade  4A 

Grade  sB 

Grade  5A 

Grade  6B 

Grade  6A 

20-  29 

3 

30-  39 

7 

I 

40-  49 

6 

SO-  59 

3 

2 

3 

60-  69 

8 

I 

2 

70-  79 

8 

3 

3 

2 

80-  89 

10 

3 

I 

90-  99 

15 

3 

7 

I 

I 

100-109 

15 

4 

5 

110-119 

12 

17 

5 

5 

2 

120-129 

12 

14 

9 

3 

I 

130-139 

20 

21 

7 

8 

140-149 

20 

II 

8 

9 

3 

150-159 

12 

18 

10 

12 

S 

160-169 

8 

14 

13 

17 

S 

170-179 

6 

12 

13 

16 

II 

180-189 

4 

12 

8 

21 

10 

190-199 

3 

12 

II 

19 

8 

200-209 

3 

5 

9 

19 

II 

210-219 

2 

7 

5 

16 

13 

220-229 

I 

2 

2 

9 

13 

230-239 

2 

2 

I 

9 

14 

240-249 

I 

7 

6 

250-259 

I 

S 

5 

260-269 

2 

I 

All  degrees  of  ability 

i8r 

165 

123 

179 

109 

Subject  to  this  possible  correction  Table  12  reveals  such  facts 
as  these: 

171  or  94%  of  the  4A  pupils  are  at)ove  the  worst  pupils  of  the  5B  grade 
162  or  90%        "              "                "                "          "          ."      5A    " 

150  or  83%        "  "  "  "  "  "  6B     " 

143  or  79%        "  "  "  "  "  "  6A    " 


41  or  23%  of  the  4A  pupils  are  above  the  mid-pupil  of  the  5B  grade 
27  or  15%        "  "  "  "  "    5A      " 

13  or    7%        "  "  "  "  "    6B      " 

9  or    5%        "  "  "  "  "    6A     " 


66  Educational  Administration 

The  best  of  the  4A  pupils  makes  a  score  three  times  as  high  as  the  worst 
pupils  of  the  6A. 

90%  of  the  6A  pupils  are  below  the  best  pupil  of  the  4A  grade 
4%        "  "  "  mid-pupil 

The  difference  of  one  half  grade  from  the  next  {i.  e.  4A  from 
5B,  5B  from  5 A,  5 A  from  6B,  and  6B  from  6A)  is,  on  the  average, 
only  one-tenth  of  the  difference  between  the  lowest  and  the  high- 
est pupil  in  any  one  grade.  It  we  take  the  highest  109  of  the  757 
pupils,  only  46  of  them  will  be  in  the  highest  of  the  five  half 
grades;  6  of  them  will  be  in  the  lowest  of  the  five,  9  will  be  in 
the  next  to  lowest. 

That  is,  the  result  of  the  actual  school  grading  is  to  pick  the 
most  able  for  the  highest  grade  hardly  four  times  in  ten,  and  to 
put  one  out  of  twenty  of  the  most  able  in  a  grade  two  years 
below  the  highest  of  the  five.  If  we  take  the  123  who,  for  ability, 
should  be  in  the  middle  or  5A  half  grade,  we  find  only  a  fourth 
of  them  there. 

If  we  drew  at  random  109  boys  and  girls  from  the  757  in  all 
these  grades  to  make  up  the  6A,  this  absolutely  random  drawing 
would  differ  from  the  4A  grade  by  half  as  much  as  does  the 
group  picked  out  administratively  as  two  years  in  advance 
of  it. 

Great  variability  within  one  school  grade  and  overlapping  by 
it  of  the  grades  on  either  side  has  been  found  in  every  careful  test 
of  the  abilities  of  school  children.  Indeed  I  unhesitatingly  assert 
that  a  month's  test  in  respect  to  the  ability  to  do  the  specific 
intellectual  work  of  the  school  course  of  study  would  show  a 
similar,  though  perhaps  not  so  great,  variability  and  a  similar 
overlapping.  If,  that  is,  all  the  757  pupils  should  be  tested  for 
six  months  with  6A  work,  there  would  be  many  of  the  4A  pupils 
who  would  outdo  many  of  the  6A  pupils.  So  also,  if  all  of  the 
group  were  set  at  4A  or  5B  work,  many  of  the  6A  pupils  would  be 


Variation  Amongst  Pupils  of  the  Same  School  Grade    67 

inferior  to  many  of  the  4A  pupils.  For  any  intellectual  task  or 
combination  of  tasks,  whether  a  psychologist's  tests,  a  common- 
sense  problem,  or  a  series  of  school  tests  in  history,  arithmetic, 
spelling  or  what  not,  the  groups  got  by  the  school's  promotion  sys- 
tem will  be  found  to  overlap  each  other  enormously.  When  the 
task  is  one  of  amount  of  knowledge  the  overlapping  will  be  less 
than  here  where  power  to  use  knowledge  counts  largely,  but  it 
will  still  exist,  and  in  a  degree  that  will  surprise  conventional 
believers  in  the  sanctity  of  school  grades  as  measures  of  scholarly 
achievement.  The  conventional  opinions  of  school  officers  and 
teachers  overweight  the  importance  of  the  instruction  given 
grade  by  grade.  They  promote  unfit  children  because  they  fancy 
that  these  children,  having  had  once,  twice  or  three  times  over 
the  supposedly  valuable  instruction  of  a  given  grade,  must  be  fit 
for  the  next.  They  refuse  to  permit  gifted  children  to  skip  grades 
because  they  fancy  that  the  loss  of  any  fraction  of  this  supposedly 
valuable  instruction  must  cause  some  grave  injury  or  risk.  Even 
the  most  sagacious  are  not  wholly  free  from  this  supersti- 
tious taboo  on  rational  judgment  of  children's  ability  by  what 
they  can  actually  do.  So  school  gradation  and  promotion 
are  far  from  being  measures  of  intellectual  merit  pure  and 
undefiled. 

It  is  not  here  claimed  that  gradation  and  promotion  should 
be  for  intellectual  merit  alone.  Physiological  maturity,  childish- 
ness of  interests,  faithful  effort,  and  many  other  criteria  are  more 
or  less  defensible.  The  gifted  pupil  may  be  the  gainer  by  working 
half  as  hard  or  doing  the  Work  twice  as  well,  rather  than  progress- 
ing twice  as  fast.  The  pupil  stupid  at  the  tasks  of  the  course  of 
study  may  be  better  off  in  failing  at  sixth  grade  work  than  in  suc- 
ceeding in  third  grade  work.  The  point  is  that  gradation  and 
promotion  should  not  pretend  to  he  for  intellectual  merit  when 
they  are  not,  and  should  be  efficiently  managed  consequences  of 
some  rational  principles,  not  of  an  inheritance  of  superstitious 


68  Educational  Administration 

prejudices  bequeathed  by  a  generation  that  knew  nothing  of  the 
individual  differences  that  characterize  the  human  species. 

Lest  any  reader  fancy  that  the  great  individual  differences 
found  within  the  same  grades  were  due  to  age  or  maturity,  I 
assure  him  that  this  is  far  from  the  case.  Ages  will  be  found  to 
overlap  as  do  grades,  and  even  more. 


§  8.  The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Pupils 

This  country's  great  contribution  to  educational  practice  is  the 
public  high  school,  providing  boys  and  girls  from  thirteen  to 
nineteen  with  free  education  and  free  preparation  for  profes- 
sional schools,  technical  schools  and  colleges. 

That  a  fifth  to  a  third  of  all  children  go  to  high  school  for  at 
least  a  time  is  a  sign  of  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  country 
which  permits  so  many  children  to  be  freed  from  productive  labor 
for  so  long.  But  it  is  also  found  upon  investigation  to  be  a  sign 
of  strong  intellectual  interests  in  very  many  boys  and  girls  who 
partially  or  entirely  support  themselves  while  continuing  their 
studies,  and  to  be  a  sign  of  a  family  devotion  in  working  and 
enduring  to  enable  a  child  or  younger  brother  to  stay  in  school, 
which  is  one  of  the  noblest  qualities  in  American  life  to-day. 

Teachers  should  not  complain  of  the  lack  of  "culture"  and 
insufl&cient  devotion  to  lesson-getting  on  the  part  of  a  high  school 
pupil  until  they  have  learned  the  limitations  of  the  social  environ- 
ment from  which  he  comes  and  the  conditions  under  which  he 
has  to  work.  Let  the  reader  consider  the  repeated  drama  of 
struggle  and  sacrifice  implied  in  the  facts  as  to  father's  occupation 
and  family  expense  for  rental  in  the  case  of  a  random  picking  of  a 
thousand  boys  and  girls  who  entered  New  York  City  high  schools 
in  February,  1906. 

There  arc,  amongst  these  fathers,  as  many  compositors  as  there 
are  doctors,  lawyers,  clergymen  and  teachers  combined.  There 
are  nearly  twice  as  many  "  tailors  " — that  is,  workers  on  garments. 
There  are  as  many  waiters  as  there  are  architects;  as  many  bar- 
bers as  there  are  civil  and  electrical  engineers;  as  many  janitors 
as  there  are  dentists  and  editors  together. 

69 


70  Educational  Administration 

The  policemen,  carpenters,  masons,  plumbers,  metal  workers, 
painters,  compositors  and  firemen  outnumber  the  doctors,  lawyers, 
clergymen  and  teachers  five  to  one.  Coachmen,  street  cleaners, 
elevator  men,  Turkish-bath  attendants,  watchmen  and  laundry 
workers  send  sons  to  the  high  school.  Coachmen,  elevator  men 
and  watchmen  send  as  many  as  clergymen  and  teachers.^ 

Of  the  economic  condition  of  the  families  as  shown  by  the  rent 
paid.  Dr.  Van  Denburg  writes: 

"Our  study  of  the  rents  paid  by  the  parents  of  the  high  school 
pupils,  incomplete  as  it  is,  yet  furnishes  some  of  the  most  surpris- 
ing information  which  the  whole  investigation  has  yielded.  Only 
420  homes  were  visited  out  of  a  thousand  so  marked  for  investiga- 
tion. Lack  of  time  and  money  combined  to  prevent  a  complete 
canvass. 

''The  method  followed  in  the  majority  of  cases  was  to  visit  the 
house,  explain  that  the  investigator  was  making  a  study  of  rents 
and  ask  the  actual  rents  paid  by  the  tenant.  In  most  cases  the 
janitor  gave  the  information  wilHngly.  In  only  a  few  cases  was 
it  necessary  to  pose  as  a  prospective  tenant  or  to  visit  the  renting 
agent.  If  any  errors  resulted  from  this  method  it  will  probably 
be  that  in  some  cases  the  figures  are  too  high  as  the  'rent  asked' 
as  it  is  known  in  New  York  often  exceeds  the  'rent  paid'  by 
actual  lessees. 

"In  our  selection  of  homes  to  be  visited  certain  locaUties  were 
selected  such  as,  in  Manhattan  the  middle  and  upper  West  Side, 
the  lower  East  Side,  Harlem,  the  lower  West  Side.  In  Brooklyn, 
Williamsburg,  Flatbush,  and  the  Park  Slope,  were  selected. 
Home  addresses  were  tabulated  by  localities  and  wherever  a  large 
number  of  addresses  were  found  to  come  within  an  area  of  ten 
blocks  or  so  square  the  rents  were  looked  up. 

^  For  a  full  account  of  the  occupations  of  fathers  and  also  of  older  brothers  and 
sisters  see  the  tables  on  pages  39  to  48  of  Causes  of  Elimination  of  Students  in  the 
Public  Secondary  Schools  of  New  York  City,  by  J.  K.  Van  Denburg,  191 1. 


The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Pupils  71 

"It  was  practically  impossible  to  visit  scattered  homes  in 
the  Bronx,  Coney  Island  section,  or  Staten  Island  or  in  sections 
where  a  half  day's  work  would  even  at  the  expense  of  many  car- 
fares give  less  than  a  dozen  rentals  as  the  result. 

"The  rents  were  originally  recorded  in  two  dififerent  numbers, 
the  lowest  and  the  highest  asked  in  the  tenement,  flat  or  apart- 
ment house.  These  two  figures  were  then  averaged  and  the  rent 
recorded  in  our  tables  according  to  the  multiple  of  five,  which  it 
most  nearly  approached.  For  example;  rents  from  $10  to  $18 
would  average  $14,  and  appear  in  our  tables  as  $15.  Rents  $14 
to  $20  would  average  $17  and  also  be  recorded  as  $15.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  extreme  accuracy  is  not  pretended  but  merely 
a  trustworthy  approximation  of  the  money  paid  each  month 
by  the  families  under  observation. 

"Rent  as  an  indication  of  a  family's  financial  condition  must 
also  take  into  consideration  several  points  we  did  not  have  time 
to  consider.  For  example,  a  family  of  three  paying  twenty  dol- 
lars a  month  for  three  rooms  may  represent  an  entirely  different 
financial  condition  from  that  which  is  shown  by  a  family  of  six 
paying  twenty  dollars  for  three  rooms.  It  is  not  only  the  rent 
itself,  but  the  number  of  rooms  and  the  number  in  the  family 
that  must  be  considered. 

"Any  scientifically  accurate  study  of  rents  as  an  indication 
of  a  family's  financial  responsibility  must  include  among  other 
things: 

1.  Rent  actually  paid. 

2.  Number  of  rooms. 

3.  Number  of    self-supporting   (rent-paying  grown  children 

hving  at  home). 

4.  Number  of  children  in  school. 

5.  Number  of  'roomers'  who  sublet  rooms  or  beds. 
"However,  with  all  these  data  omitted,  we  can  still  trust  our 

figures  as  maximum  rentals  very  confidently,  because  all  the 


72  Educational  Administration 

five  items  mentioned  above  except  No.  4  tend  to  lower  the  net 
rent  and  to  enable  a  family  to  Hve  in  a  tenement  or  flat  where 
more  rent  is  charged  than  the  same  family  would  be  able  to  afford 
on  the  basis  of  the  father's  wages  alone. 

"Our  figures,  especially  those  recorded  as  below  twenty  dollars 
may  then  be  considered  as  erring  only  on  the  side  of  being  too 
high,  rarely  if  ever  too  low.  For  our  purposes  they  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  fairly  accurate  maximum  figures  rather  than  true 
averages  for  the  homes  visited."    ['11,  pp.  ygf.] 

The  essential  facts  found  by  Dr.  Van  Denburg  appear  in  Table 
13,  which  shows  at  a  glance  the  sort  of  homes  from  which  the 
city's  high-school  pupils  come.  In  reading  the  table  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that,  roughly,  a  fifteen-dollar  rental  means  an  un- 
heated  and  badly  ventilated  space,  ten  feet  by  forty — that  is, 
practically  the  lowest  grade  three  or  four-room  tenement  in  the 
cheapest  quarters  of  Manhattan  or  Brooklyn.  A  twenty-five- 
dollar  rental  means  in  Manhattan  a  space  little  or  no  larger,  but 
not  so  dark,  dirty,  or  lacking  in  toilet  conveniences.  In  some 
parts  of  the  outlying  boroughs  a  twenty-five-dollar  rental  means 
half  of  a  ten  or  twelve-room  house  or  a  tenement  twelve  feet  by 
fifty. 

Such  homes  are  the  best  the  parents  can  provide  for  three- 
quarters  of  these  pupils.  In  them  there  will,  of  course,  be  no 
separate  room  for  the  high-school  pupil  to  study  or  sleep  in.  No 
money  can  well  be  spent  for  books.  There  is  always  work,  es- 
pecially for  the  girls,  in  getting  meals,  "minding"  younger  chil- 
dren, and  other  household  duties,  for  a  servant  is  unknown  in 
these  homes.  The  bare  facts  of  Table  13  tell  to  one  who  will 
reflect  on  their  meaning  a  poignant  story  of  appreciation  and 
sacrifice. 


The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Pupils 


73 


TABLE   13 

The  Relative  Frequencies  of  Families  Paying  Various  Amounts  for  Rent, 
IN  THE  Case  of  Families  Sending  Children  to  New  York  Public 
High  Schools 


Quantity 

Approximate 

Monthly  Rental 

ia  Dollats 


IS 
20 

25 

30 

35 
40 

45 
50 

55 
60 

65 
70 

75 
80 

85 
90 

95 
100 
105 
no  \ 

IIS) 
120  ) 
125  ) 
130 
13s 
140  ) 

145  ) 
ISO 


Frequency 

Numbers  of 

Families  per 

Thousand 

79 
367 

81 
181 

38 

79 

12 

52 
7 

14 
12 
10 


5 

2 

7 
12 

19 
12 

S 

S 

2 


By  Coarser  Grouping 


Rental 

$io-$  25 

S30-S  45 
$50-$  6s 
$70-$  85 
fgo-Sios 
$110  and  over. 


Per  Cent  of  Families 

71 
18 

4 

2 

3 

3 


PART  II 
STUDIES  OF  THE  TEACHING  STAFF 


§  g.  The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching 

The  first  student  of  education  to  measure  the  conditions  of 
efficiency  in  teaching,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  was  Dr.  J.  L. 
Meriam,  whose  monograph  on  Normal  School  Education  and 
Efficiency  in  Teaching  ['05]  includes  reports  on  the  relation  of 
eflOiciency  in  teaching  to:  (i)  scholarship  during  the  normal  school 
course,  (2)  rank  in  practice  teaching  during  that  course,  and  (3) 
length  of  experience.  The  facts  for  (i)  and  (2)  almost  exclu- 
sively, and  for  (3)  exclusively,  concern  teachers  in  elementary 
schools.    I  give  first  the  facts  for  (i)  and  (2). 

Since  the  teachers  were  widely  scattered  and  comprise  the 
graduates  (of  '98-'o2  inclusive)  from  five  normal  schools,  usable 
ratings  for  efficiency  could  not  be  obtained  from  their  principals, 
superintendents  and  fellow  teachers. 

"Another  method  was  taken.  Principals  of  normal  schools 
usually  follow  quite  closely  the  work  of  their  graduates. 

"The  estimate  of  such  men  is  probably  the  best  available  mark 
for  teaching  efficiency.    This  is  the  mark  used  in  this  study. 

"In  selecting  the  individuals,  the  roll  of  classes  graduating 
between  1898  and  1902,  inclusive,  was  taken.  The  individuals 
were  taken  in  order,  in  so  far  as  the  principal  of  the  school  had 
followed  the  work  of  the  graduate  sufficiently  to  be  ready  to 
estimate  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching.  All  others  were  discarded . ' ' 
[Meriam,  '05,  p.  59.] 

The  marks  for  scholarship  and  for  practice  teaching  were  both 
taken  from  the  school  records.  These  measures  are  all,  as 
Dr.  Meriam  points  out,  subject  to  errors  of  opinion,  but  it  is  best 
to  note  first  what  they  show  when  so  treated  as  to  add  no  new 
errors,  and  to  discuss  later  whatever  modifications  or  insecurities 
need  comment. 

77 


78  Educational  Administration 

Taking  these  marks  as  true  measures,  the  following  coefficients 
of  correlation  ^  were  found: 

Efficiency  in  teaching  with  practice  teaching 39 

"        "  "  "    psychology 37 

"        "  "  "    history  and  principles  of  education 28 

"        "  "  "    methods  of  teaching  math.,  sci.,  hist.,  and  Enghsh  .29 

"        "  "  "    academic  courses  in  math.,  sci.,  hist.,  and  English  .22 

The  gross  amounts  of  these  correlations  may  all  be  too  low  or, 
though  this  is  unlikely,  all  too  high,  but  their  mutual  relations 
will  not  be  greatly  altered.  The  main  source  of  error  is,  of  course, 
the  rehance  upon  the  opinions  of  the  principals  of  the  normal 
schools  as  to  the  efficiency  of  these  teachers.  This  source  of  error 
operates  in  two  ways.  First,  in  so  far  as  a  principal  simply 
blunders,  through  ignorance,  carelessness,  or  a  random  collection 
of  prejudices,  the  effect  is  to  make  all  the  obtained  correlations  lower 
than  they  would  be  with  perfectly  just  ratings.  Second,  in  so  far  as 
the  principal  is  biased  in  his  judgment  of  individuals'  teaching 
efficiency  by  the  impression  he  got  from  their  scholarly  work,  or 
work  in  practice  teaching,  when  they  were  students,  the  obtained 
correlation  in  question  will  be  higher  than  it  would  be  with  per- 
fectly just  ratings. 

Another  source  of  error  is  that  the  marks,  especially  when  given 
on  a  coarse  scale  (such  as  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  or  i,  2,  3,  4,  5;  or 
excellent,  good,  etc.)  and  for  a  single  course,  do  not  perfectly 
measure  scholarship  or  the  real  ability  shown  in  the  student's 

'  These  coefficients  of  correlation  are  numbers,  measuring  the  closeness  of  cor- 
respondence between  a  teacher's  rank  amongst  his  fellows  in  one  of  the  traits  listed 
and,  his  rank  in  the  other  trait  hsted.  +1.Q0  means  perfect  correspondence — that 
each  individual  occupies  exactly  the  same  relative  position  in  the  two  traits;  —  i.oo 
means  that  the  positions  are  exactly  reversed,  the  highest  individual  in  the  one 
trait  being  the  lowest  in  the  other;  o  means  a  haphazard,  random  relation  between 
the  two,  so  that  the  best  person  in  the  one  trait  is  as  likely  to  be  worst  as  best  in 
the  other.  For  a  fuller  account  see  the  chapters  on  the  measurement  of  relations  in 
Thomdike's  Mental  and  Social  Measurements. 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    79 

practice  teaching.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  make  all  the  obtained 
correlations  lower  than  they  would  be  if  normal  school  marks 
each  and  all  represented  omniscient  justice. 

The  effect  of  random  inaccuracies  in  the  original  measures  upon 
correlations  computed  from  them  was  not  known  at  the  time 
when  Dr.  Meriam  did  his  work,  so  that  means  to  calculate  the 
necessary  allowances  were  not  taken  by  him.  It  is  however 
probable  that  with  perfectly  just  measures  of  all  the  traits  the 
correlations  would  be: 


ienc 

y  in  teaching 

with 

practice  teaching 

between 

•35 

and   . 60 

" 

"          " 

" 

psychology- 

(( 

•35 

"     .60 

" 

((          « 

i< 

history  and  principles  of  educa- 

tion 

« 

■25 

"      50 

« 

<i          « 

methods    of    teaching    math., 
sci.,  hist.,  and  English 

« 

•25 

"     ^50 

« 

((          « 

academic    courses    in    math., 
sci.,  hist.,  and  English 

<( 

•25 

"      50 

In  any  case  it  is  clear  that  scholarship  is  one  contributor  to 
efficiency  in  teaching  and  that  it  is  somewhere  nearly  as  good  a 
sign  of  it  as  ability  in  practice  teaching  is. 

The  Relation  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching  to  Length  of  Experience 

Five  hundred  and  seven  teachers  in  certain  elementary  schools 
in  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  the  length  of  whose  teaching 
experience  was  known,  were  graded  for  efficiency  in  teaching, 
each  group  by  the  principal  of  the  school. 

"  The  ranking  of  the  teachers  of  the  33  schools  differed  much 
in  the  number  of  groups  into  which  the  corps  of  teachers  was 
divided.  For  example,  one  principal  divided  his  teachers  into 
a  first,  second  and  third  rank.  Others  made  5,  8,  12  and  even  22 
groups.  In  this  last  group  were  22  teachers,  who  were  thus 
arranged  in  perfect  serial  order  from  the  most  efficient  teacher 
to  the  least  efficient  teacher."  ,  .  , 


8o 


Educational  Administration 


To  use  all  these  together  conveniently  they  were  regrouped 
into  five  grades  by  the  method  shown  below,  in  Table  14. 

''Here  the  principle  used  was  that  the  extremes  should  be 
disturbed  as  little  as  possible.  Thus,  in  an  original  grouping  into 
10  we  now  have:  first  rank  remains  first  rank;  second  and  third 
become  second  rank;  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  become  third  rank; 
eighth  and  ninth  become  fourth  rank;  and  the  tenth  become 
fifth  rank."    [Meriam,  '05,  p.  106] 


TABLE   14 
Table  of  Regrouping 


Original 

First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

groups 

rank 

rank 

rank 

rank 

rank 

5 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

2 

3-  4 

5 

6 

7 

2 

3-  5 

6 

7 

8 

2 

3-  6 

7 

8 

9 

2-3 

4-  6 

7-  8 

9 

10 

2-3 

4-  7 

8-9 

10 

11 

2-3 

4-8 

Q-IO 

II 

12 

2-4 

5-  8 

9-1 1 

12 

13 

2-4 

5-  9 

10-12 

13 

14 

2-4. 

5-10 

II-13 

14 

15 

2-5 

6-10 

11-14 

1=; 

18 

2-6 

7-12 

13-17 

18 

IQ* 

2-6 

7-13 

14-18 

19 

20 

2-6 

7-14 

15-19 

20 

22 

1-2 

3-7 

8-iS 

16-20 

21-22 

"What  do  our  data  indicate  as  to  the  relation  of  experience  to 
relative  standing  in  teaching  efficiency?  We  have  such  questions 
as  these:  Does  the  teacher's  standing  increase  with  her  experience, 
i.  e.  do  the  older  teachers  stand  foremost,  or  is  there  a  certain 
amount  of  experience  at  which  a  teacher  is  in  her  'prime  of  Hfe?' 

"In  this  study  I  have  divided  the  thirty- three  schools  into  two 
divisions:  In  the  first  division  I  have  rearranged  into  five  groups 
all  schools  already  in  five  or  more  groups;  in  the  other  I  have 
arranged  into  three  groups  those  schools  already  in  three  or  four 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    8r 


groups.  In  the  former  group  are  387  cases;  in  the  later,  117  cases 
— making  504  cases  considered.  The  number  of  years'  experience 
in  teaching  is  given  in  nine  groups,  as  follows:  o,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  to 
10,  II  to  15,  16  and  over.  The  following  table  [Table  15]  gives 
the  distribution.  The  numbers  at  the  top  give  the  number  of 
years'  experience;  those  at  the  left  indicate  the  rank  of  the  teach- 
ers; the  others  show  the  individual  cases  in  each. 

TABLE   IS 
Teaching  Efficiency  in  Relation  to  Experience 


Amount 

OF 

Experience 

Rank 

16  + 

15 

ton 

10  to  6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

0  Totals 

I 

9 

16 

18 

2 

2 

I 

2 

50 

2 

16 

16 

28 

10 

6 

4 

7 

4 

91 

3 

16 

14 

51 

10 

12 

13 

10 

12 

I        139 

4 

14 

IS 

18 

6 

3 

6 

5 

10 

77 

5 

5 

7 

10 

I 

2 

I 

4 

30 

Total 


60 


68 


125 


28 


24 


26 


25 


30 


387 


"  When  turned  into  percentages  the  entries  in  the  above  table 
give  the  following  (Table  16) : 

TABLE   16 
Amount  of  Experience 


Rank 

16+ 

IS  to  II 

10  to  6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

0    Totals 

I 

15- 

23.6 

14.4 

7- 

8.3 

3-8 

8 

13- 

2 

26.7 

23.6 

22.4 

35.8 

25- 

154 

28 

133 

235 

3 

26.7 

20.6 

40.8 

35-8 

50  • 

50. 

40 

40. 

100.    36. 

4 

233 

22. 

14.4 

21.4 

12.5 

23.1 

20 

33-3 

20. 

5 

8.3 

10.2 

8. 

4.2 

7-7 

4 

13  3 

7-5 

"  That  is,  15  per  cent  of  those  who  taught  sixteen  years  or  more 
are  in  the  first  rank;  13.3  per  cent  of  those  with  one  year's  expe- 
rience are  in  the  lowest  rank. 

"  The  true  standing  in  each  group  may  be  well  seen  from  the 
median  of  each  group;  that  is,  the  point  which  marks  the  dividing 
line  between  the  better  half  and  the  poorer  half  in  each  group  of 
teachers.    These  medians  are  calculated  upon  the  series  of  five 


82  Edticational  Administration 

groups  according  to  teaching  efficiency.    I  omit  the  single  case 
with  o  years'  experience. 

i6+       II  to  15     6  to  10         5  4  3         2  I  Totals 

3.81         2.63         2.82        2.70      2.83       3. II    2.85      3.40  2.88 

"  A  treatment  of  the  other  117  cases  in  three  groups  gives  prac- 
tically the  same  results.  The  following  (Table  17)  is  the  table 
of  distribution: 

TABLE   17 

Amotjnt  of  Experience 

Rank          i6+    iitois  6toio  5          4           3           2           i           o Totals 

189  II  4321                             38 

2           6           10  19  2          2           4           2           4           5     54 

33             3  9                     1116125 

Totals         17  22  39  6  6  7  4         10  6  117 

The  medians  on  the  basis  of  a  series  of  three  are  as  follows: 

Experience         16+    u  to  15  6  to  10      5  4  3        2       i  o     Totals 

Median  rank      1.58        1.70       1.95     1.25     1.50     1.87    .2    2.66     2.10     1.88 

"  The  Pearson  formula  for  the  index  of  correlation  for  the  387 
cases  with  the  better  grading  gives  .097.  This  would  be  much 
smaller  but  for  the  group  with  one  year  of  experience.  Apart  from 
that  group  there  is  practically  a  zero  correlation.  It  must  be  said, 
then,  in  answer  to  the  relation  between  experience  and  teaching 
efficiency  that  beyond  the  first  year  of  experience  it  is  practically 
nil.  After  the  first  year  the  amount  of  experience  is  not  an  im- 
portant criterion  for  efficient  teaching  in  the  elementary  schools. 
The  importance  of  this  fact,  if  it  is  confirmed  by  later  researches, 
to  administrators  of  school  systems  is  obvious."  [Meriam,  '05, 
pp.   108-111,  passim] 

The  relation  of  efficiency  in  teaching  to  length  of  experience 
in  the  case  of  high-school  teachers  was  studied  by  Thorndike  ['09] 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    ^7, 

using  the  salaries  received  by  teachers  in  private  schools  in  the 
same  city  under  free  competition  as  measures  of  their  effi- 
ciency. 

The  private  schools  of  a  single  community  presumably  give 
salaries  in  a  fairly  close  proportion  to  what  they  judge  to  be 
efficiency  in  teaching — that  is,  approximately  free  competition 
obtains  and  the  salary  is  to  some  extent  a  measure  of  the  teacher's 
efficiency.  The  closeness  of  the  approximations  will  depend  upon 
the  extent  to  which  the  authorities  of  these  schools  are  governed 
by  economic  rather  than  sentimental  or  idealistic  considerations 
in  adjusting  salaries  and  upon  the  extent  to  which  their  judg- 
ments of  the  efficiency  of  teachers  are  correct. 

The  dififerences  in  salary  among  teachers  of  the  same  sex  in 
private  secondary  schools  of  the  same  community  may  then  be 
taken  as  to  some  degree  parallel  to  the  differences  in  their  teach- 
ing efficiency;  and  in  so  far  as  any  two  communities  are  alike  in 
the  cost  of  living  and  the  attractiveness  of  life  and  in  so  far  as 
there  is  competition  between  them  for  the  services  of  teachers, 
the  two  may  be  treated  as  one  for  the  purposes  of  this  in- 
quiry. 

The  data  available  are  rather  meager,  and  to  utilize  what  there 
are  fully  would  require  an  enormous  expenditure  of  time.  I  have 
therefore  studied  the  relation  of  salary  to  length  of  experience 
amongst  teachers  in  private  secondary  schools  in  only  the  follow- 
ing five  cases: 

Men's  salaries:  Private  secondary  schools  for  boys  in  New  York 
City. 

Men's  salaries:  Private  secondary  schools  for  boys  in  Boston, 
Worcester,  and  Philadelphia. 

Women's  salaries:  Private  secondary  schools  for  girls  in  New 
York  City. 

Women's  salaries:  Private  secondary  schools  for  girls  in  Boston 
and  Cincinnati. 


84 


Educational  Administration 


Men's  salaries:  Private  secondary  schools  for  boys  or  boys  and 
girls  in  towns  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.^ 

Making  the  comparisons  separately  for  each  of  these  groups 
and  then  measuring  the  general  tendency  of  the  fact  in  the  five 


1500 


0,1,2 


3.4,5 


6-9  10-14 

Length  of  Experience 


15-19 


ZO 
And  Over 


Fig.  8.  The  relation  of  salary  to  length  of  experience  in  the  case  of  teachers  in 
private  secondary  schools  in  communities  alike  in  the  value  of  the  dollar  (to  a 
teacher.)  The  horizontal  line  gives  the  scale  for  length  of  experience  in  years. 
The  vertical  scale  is  for  the  amount  of  annual  salary. 


cases,  we  have  the  result  shown  in  Figure  8,  which  relates  the 
amount  of  salary  to  the  amount  of  experience  in  teaching.  So 
far  as  the  data  go,  they  support  the  hypothesis  that  the  full  effect 
of  experience  in  teaching  on  efficiency  in  the  work  of  a  private 

•  In  this  case  the  towns  are  not  alike  in  the  cost  of  living,  but  as  a  rule  the  greater 
attractiveness  of  life  in  the  more  expensive  towns  is  sufficient  to  make  an  approxi- 
mate balance. 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    85 

secondary  school  is  reached  in  three  years,  the  slight  rise  from 
twenty  on  being  probably  attributable  to  the  higher  wages  for 
executive  work  as  head  of  a  department,  or  to  the  sentiment 
which  leads  private  school  authorities  to  maintain  or  increase 
salaries  after  long  service,  even  though  a  more  efficient  person 
could  be  obtained  for  a  less  amount. 


Z500 


2000 


0I5OO 

o 
a 

^1000 

0 
to 


500 


10  15  20 

Years  of   Experience 


25 


50 


Fig.  9.    The  relation  of  salary  to  length  of  experience  in  the  case  of  teachers  in 
public  high  schools.    Men  teachers  of  New  York,  Boston,  St.  Louis  and  Chicago. 


Unfortunately  the  private  schools  rarely  sent  the  individualized 
data  requisite  for  such  a  study,  so  that  the  measurement  above 
made  might  undergo  modifications  of  fairly  large  extent  upon 
receipt  of  full  information. 

Such  facts  as  appear  in  Figure  8  are  in  sharp  contrast  to  those 
within  the  public  system  of  a  large  city.  In  the  latter  it  is  custom- 
ary to  advance  the  salaries  of  those  whose  appointments  are 
renewed,  and  also,  though  less  often,  to  determine  the  amount 


86 


Educational  Administration 


of  the  salary  of  a  teacher  entering  the  system  from  another  city 
partly  on  the  basis  of  the  length  of  time  he  has  taught.  New 
York  City  is  a  notable  case. 

I  show  in  Figure  9  the  relation  of  salary  to  experience  obtained 
by  combining  the  four  relations  found  in  New  York,  Boston,  St. 
Louis  and  Cleveland  in  the  case  of  men  teachers  in  public  high 
schools.  Figure  10  gives  the  same  relation  in  the  case  of  women 
teachers.  The  difference  between  the  relation  in  these  cases  and 
what  it  is  under  free  competition  is  obvious. 


nuuy 

1500 
c 

'^1000 

^  500 

0 

■ 

--- 

/'' 

10  15  ZO  25 

Years  of  Experience  in  Teaching 


30 


35 


Fig.  10.     The  relation  of  salary  to  length  of  experience  in  the  case  of  teachers  in 
public  high  schools.    Women  teachers  of  Boston,  St.  Louis  and  Cleveland. 


It  may  be  well  to  warn  ourselves  that  even  if  it  were  true  that 
experience  after  the  first  four  or  five  years  does  not  greatly  add 
to  the  efficiency  of  a  public  high  school  teacher,  still  it  cannot  be 
said  that  the  customary  practice  in  our  large  cities  wastes  money 
in  paying  for  a  false  symptom  of  efficiency;  for,  even  if  the  teach- 
ers of  five  years'  experience  equaled  those  of  ten,  it  might  still 
be  wise  to  pay  the  latter  more.  In  the  first  place,  the  salary 
schedule  as  a  whole  decides  the  teacher  in  his  choice  amongst 
positions.    It  is  not  a  fixed  $1,000  that  he  accepts,  but  $1,000 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    87 

plus  $100  advance  annually  up  to  $2,ocxd.  The  advance  with  time 
is  really  a  feature  in  the  bargain.  In  the  second  place,  it  may  be 
wise  for  a  city  to  pay  its  teachers  what  will  maintain  a  certain 
standard  of  living,  rather  than  what  will  just  purchase  the  re- 
quired efficiency;  and  on  this  principle  the  head  of  a  family,  at 
least,  should  be  advanced  with  age  or  with  some  other  still  more 
accurate  measure  of  the  size  of  his  family.  In  the  third  place, 
the  premium  on  experience  has  the  administrative  advantage  of 
encouraging  the  adoption  of  teaching  as  a  permanent  profession 
and  of  preventing  frequent  changes  in  the  local  teaching  staff. 
It  is  also  free  from  the  difficulties  of  competition  for  promotion  on 
the  grounds  of  pure  merit. 

It  is  well,  on  the  other  hand,  to  note  that  the  premium  paid 
for  experience  may  deprive  a  city  of  the  best  services  obtainable 
for  the  price  it  has  to  pay,  may  retain  the  less  competent  too- 
surely,  and  may  discourage  the  entrance  to  and  continuance  in 
the  profession  of  that  very  desirable  class  who  would  prefer  to 
work  under  a  system  of  competitive  promotion  by  merit. 

The  Relations  of  Length  of  Experience  and  of  Length  of  Edttca- 
tion  to  Amount  of  Salary 

If  one  does  not  seek  to  restrict  the  localities  used  in  the  com- 
parison to  those  in  which  the  same  salary  is  equally  desirable,  the 
number  of  cases  may  of  course  be  greatly  increased,  to  such  an 
extent,  in  fact,  that  the  relation  of  salary  to  length  of  experience 
may  be  studied  separately  for  teachers  of  each  different  amount 
of  education.  The  relation  of  salary  to  the  amount  of  education 
for  teachers  of  each  amount  of  experience  may  also  be  determined. 

I  have  so  studied  all  the  individualized  reports  from  the  public 
high  schools  of  Ohio,  Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  large  schools  rarely  sent  in  individualized  reports 
and  so  are  rarely  included  in  these  data.    This  is,  of  course, 


88 


Educational  Administration 


an  advantage  in  that  it  makes  the  data  less  diverse  with  respect 
to  the  cost  of  living  and  the  value  of  life. 

The  computations  start  with  preliminary  tables  like  the  follow- 
ing (Table  i8): 


TABLE  i8 

Table  of  Frequencies  of  Salaries  of  Teachers  of  8  Years  Education  and 
o,  I,  OR  2  Years  of  Experience  in  Teaching  (Women  in  Ohio) 


Quantity         '  Frequency 
(Annual  ]  (Number  of 

Salary)  |  Teachers) 


$399- 
405- 
450- 
465- 

475- 
485- 
495- 
500. 

540- 


Quantity 
(Annual 
Salary) 


4 

2 

II 

I 
2 

I 

4 
4 


S550. 
560. 
570- 
585- 
590. 
600. 
630. 
650. 
675- 


t  Frequency! 
j  (Number  of 
j   Teachers) 


Quantity 
(Annual 
Salary) 


$695 . . 
700.  . 
720.  . 

750- • 
780.. 
800.  . 
1,000. 


Frequency 
I  (Number  of 
;  Teachers) 


There  are  528  such  tables,  but  with  some  blanks  (3  States  x  2 
sexes  XII  lengths  of  education  x  8  lengths  of  experience,  namely: 
0-2,  3-5,  6-9,  ic»-i4,  15-19,  20-24,  25-29,  30  and  over).  I  shall 
refer  to  these  528  tables  as  the  original  tables. 

From  a  thorough  study  of  these  tables  it  is  clear  that  the  rela- 
tions to  be  investigated  are  substantially  the  same  in  the  three 
States.    I  therefore  combine  the  data  from  the  three  States. 

A  study  of  the  same  tables  also  shows  that  there  is  no  sure 
appreciable  difference  as  regards  frequency  of  salaries  for  teachers 
of  o,  I,  2,  and  3  years  of  education  beyond  the  elementary  schools. 
I  therefore  combine  the  data  for  these  four  groups.  The  data  for 
ten  years  of  education  are  too  few  to  give  reliable  determinations. 
Hence  I  omit  them. 

The  data  for  the  groups  of  "25-29"  and  "30  and  over"  years 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    89 

of  experience  are  too  few  to  give  reliable  determinations,  and 
there  is  surely  no  great  difference  between  these  two  groups.  So 
I  combine  these  also. 

The  98  tables  resulting  furnish  the  material  for  answering  any 
questions  about  the  relationship  of  salary  to  amount  of  experience 
and  to  amount  of  education  in  the  case  of  these  groups  of  teachers, 
and  for  comparisons  with  the  status  of  this  relationship  at  any 
date  in  the  future. 

These  98  tables  will  be  found  in  full  in  section  IX  of  No.  404 
of  the  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  "The 
Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  the  United  States,"  by 
Edward  L.  Thorndike.  I  give  here  the  tables  for  men  and  women 
of  four  years,  and  of  eight  years,  of  education  beyond  the  elemen- 
tary school. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  summarize  in  words  the  relation- 
ship between  salary  and  length  of  experience,  because  of  its  com- 
plexity. 

There  is  no  uniform  tendency  for  a  given  difference  in  length 
of  experience  to  be  accompanied  by  a  constant  gross  or  percentile 
difference  in  salary.  The  upper  range  of  salaries  varies  with  ex- 
perience more  than  the  average  salary.  The  relation  is  different 
in  the  case  of  those  of  much  and  those  of  little  education.  There 
are  other  eccentricities.  For  an  adequate  measurement  of  the 
relation  one  would  have  to  repeat  every  detail  of  the  98  tables. 
I  shall  state  only  those  general  facts  which  are  of  most  significance 
to  educational  administration.    These  are  as  follows: 

The  Relation  of  Salary  to  Experience  in  the  Case  of  Men  Teachers 

The  high-school  authorities  in  the  three  States  under  considera- 
tion pay  the  average  male  high-school  teacher  on  the  average  $28 
{i.  e.  4  per  cent  of  the  usual  salary  for  the  first  three  years  of 
teaching)  for  each  year  of  experience  from  i  to  12  years,  $8  a 


90 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   19 

Relations  Between  Salary,  Amount  of  Education,  and  Extent  of  Ex- 
perience OF  Male  High-School  Teachers  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin 


MEN   OF  4   YEARS   OF  EDUCATION   BEYOND  ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 


Salaries 


Years  of  Experience 


Under  $400 

$400  to  S499.  . . . 
$500  to  $599.  . . . 
$600  to  $699.  . . . 
$700  to  $799.  . . . 
$800  to  $899.  . . . 
$900  to  $999.  . . . 
$1,000  to  $1,099. 
$1,100  to  $1,199. 
$1,200  to  $1,299. 
$1,300  to  $1,399. 
$1,400  to  $1,499. 
$1,500  to  $1,999. 
$2,000  to  $2,499. 
$2,500  and  over. 


3  to  5 


6  to  9      10  to  14'  15  to  19  20  to  24 


5 
4 
II 
6 
2 
4 
3 


25  and 
over 


MEN   OF   8   YEARS   OF  EDUCATION   BEYOND  ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 


Salaries 


Years  of  Experience 


Under  $400 

$400  to  $499. ... 
$500  to  $599.  .  .  . 
$600  to  $699.  . . . 
$700  to  $799.  . . . 
$800  to  $899.  .  .  . 
$900  to  $999.  .  .  . 
$1,000  to  $1,099. 
$1,100  to  $1,199. 
$1,200  to  $1,299. 
$1,300  to  $1,399. 
$1,400  to  $1,499. 
$1,500  to  $1,999. 
$2,000  to  $2,499. 
$2,500  and  over. 


o  to  2       3  to  5   I    6  to  9         to       lis  to  19  20  to  24    ^^  ^"" 


15 
23 

35 
22 

IS 
I 

3 


2 
13 
23 
27 
25 
27 
20 

4 
8 

3 

2 


6 
15 
19 
16 
18 

23 
8 

9 

7 

3 

10 


7 
10 


7 
II 

5 


5 

4 

3 

13 


4      I 
6     4 

2  

2     I 

1  

2  


The  Causes  and  Cottditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching     91 


TABLE   20 

Relations  Between  Salarv,  Amount  of  Education,  and  Extent  of  Experience  of  Female 

High-School  Teachers  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin 

women  of  4  years  of  education  beyond  elementary  school 


Salaries 


Years  of  Experience 


Under  $400 

$400  to  $449.  . . . 
$450  to  $499.  .  . . 
$500  to  $549.  .  .  . 
$550  to  $599.  .  .  . 
$600  to  $649.  .  .  . 
$650  to  $699.  .  . . 
$700  to  $749-  •  •  • 
$750  to  $799.  .  .  . 
$800  to  $849.  .  .  . 
$850  to  $899.  .  .  . 
$900  to  $949.  .  .  . 
$950  to  $999-  •  •  ■ 
$1,000  to  $1,099. 
$1,100  to  $1,199. 
$i,200  to  $1,299. 
$1,300  to  $1,399. 
$1,400  to  $1,499. 
$1,500  to  $1,999. 
$2,000  and  over. 


o  to  2     3  to  s      6  to  9    10  to  14  IS  to  19  201024!  ^^y*" 


women  of   8   YEARS   OF   EDUCATION   BEYOND   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 


Salaries 


Years  of  Experience 


o  to  2      3  to  s      6  to  9     10  to  14  IS  to  19  20  to  24    25  and 


Under  $400 

$400  to  $449.  .  .  . 
$450  to  $499.  .  .  . 
$500  to  S549.  .  .  . 
$550  to  $599.  .  .  . 
$600  to  $649.  . .  . 
$650  to  $699.  .  .  . 
$700  to  $749.  .  .  . 
$750  to  $799-  •  ■  • 
$800  to  $849.  .  .  . 
$850  to  $899.  .  .  . 
$900  to  $949.  .  . . 
$950  to  $999.  .  .  . 
$1,000  to  $1,099. 
$1,100  to  $1,199. 
$1,200  to  $1,299. 
$1,300  to  $1,399. 
$1,400  to  $1,499. 
$1,500  to  $1,999. 
$2,000  and  over. 


3 
9 

50 

52 

27 

34 

16 

8 

4 

7 


29 
15 
38 
31 

28 

17 

IS 

2 


s 

6 
14 

25 

22 
16 
19 
7 
10 

4 
6 

5 
4 
6 


3 
3 

I 

17 
2 

5 
4 
6 


92  Educational  Administration 

year  for  each  year  from  12  to  22,  and  little  or  nothing  for  each 
year  thereafter.  The  superior  teachers  show  larger  differences 
with  experience.  The  men  who  have  had  the  most  education 
not  only  are  paid  more  at  the  start,  but  also  show  larger  differ- 
ences with  the  first  10  or  15  years  of  experience,  those  with  8 
years  beyond  the  elementary  school  showing  differences  with 
experience  that  are  about  five  times  as  large  as  those  of  men 
with  0-3  years,  over  twice  as  large  as  those  of  men  with  4-6 
years,  and  one  and  a  half  times  as  large  as  those  of  men  with  7 
years.^  The  differences  between  the  salaries  of  those  with  10-15 
and  those  with  20-30  years  of  experience  seem  to  be  on  the  aver- 
age the  same  for  those  of  little  and  those  of  much  education. 

The  Relation  of  Salary  to  Experience  in  the  Case  of  Women 

Teacliers 

The  school  authorities  in  the  three  States  in  question  pay  the 
average  female  high  school  teacher  on  the  average  $27  {i.  e.  5  per 
cent  of  the  usual  salary  for  the  first  three  years  of  teaching)  for 
each  year  of  experience  from  i  to  22  and  apparently  even  to  30 
or  over.  The  superior  teachers  show  larger  differences  with  expe- 
rience. The  women  who  have  had  the  most  education  not  only 
are  paid  more  at  the  start,  but  also  show  larger  differences,  not 
only  for  the  first  10  or  15  years  of  teaching,  as  with  men,  but 

^  The  somewhat  awkward  form  of  verbal  statement  used  here  and  later  is  neces- 
sary to  avoid  giving  the  impression  that  the  same  person  would  receive  the  advances 
and  discounts  described  if  he  had  the  increase  in  experience  or  education  or  the 
decrease  in  the  latter  corresponding  to  the  differencei  described.  Such  may  be 
true,  but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  from  our  facts.  For  education  and  ex- 
perience not  only  alter  individuals  from  what  they  were  or  would  have  been,  but 
also  select  individuals.  The  teachers  who  have  taught  20  years  are  a  selected  group 
of  those  who  have  taught  2  years  and  their  salaries  need  not  be  equal  to  what  the 
latter  would  attain  if  they  taught  18  years  longer.  The  teachers  who  studied  8 
years  may  be  different  by  nature  as  well  as  by  training  from  those  who  studied  only 
4  years.    . 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    93 

throughout.  Women  with  8  years  of  education  beyond  the  ele- 
mentary school  show  differences  with  experience  that  are  five 
times  as  large  as  those  of  women  with  o  to  3  years,  over  twice  as 
large  as  those  of  women  with  4-6  years,  and  over  one  and  a  half 
times  as  large  as  those  of  women  with  7  years. 

The  Relation  of  Salary  to  Length  of  EdUrCation 

It  is  also  impossible  to  state  the  relation  between  salary  and 
length  of  education  adequately  in  words.  There  is  again  in  this 
case  no  uniform  tendency,  though  the  eccentricities  are  here  not 
so  marked.  There  is  also  a  special  difficulty  in  that  the  increases 
from  o  to  9  years  of  education  do  not  mean  additions  of  equal 
amounts  of  the  same  thing.  For  instance,  the  group  with  8  years 
of  education  are  mostly  college  graduates,  while  the  group  with 
6  years  of  education  have  rarely  completed  two  years  of  a  college 
course.  The  original  tables  tell  the  whole  story,  certain  features 
of  which  I  shall  repeat  in  verbal  form. 

The  high  school  authorities  in  the  three  States  pay  the  average 
male  high  school  teacher  on  the  average  $90  (or  one-seventh  of 
the  usual  salary  for  the  first  three  years  of  teaching)  less,  if  he 
is  one  year  short  of  the  standard  8  years;  they  pay  him  on  the 
average  $220  (or  one- third  of  the  usual  salary  for  the  first  3  years) 
less,  if  he  is  3  years  short  of  that  standard;  and  $325  (or  over  half 
that  salary)  less,  if  he  is  6  years  short  of  that  standard.  For  a 
year  in  addition  to  the  standard  they  pay  him  on  the  average  $90 
more.  All  these  differences  are  smaller  for  those  of  little  experi- 
ence in  teaching  and  greater  for  those  of  much. 

The  corresponding  figures  for  women  teachers  are  $75,  $150, 
and  $275  less,  for  i,  3,  and  6  years  short  of  the  standard  8  years, 
and  $45  more  for  i  year  over  that  standard.  These  amounts  are, 
respectively,  one-seventh,  two-sevenths,  over  half,  and  one- 
eleventh  of  the  usual  salary  for  the  first  three  years  of  teaching. 


94  Educational  Administration 

It  is  evident  that  school  authorities  reward  the  kind  of  man  or 
woman  who  has  secured  a  thorough  education;  and  that,  in  so 
far  as  their  practice  is  a  natural  selection  of  one  means  of  securing 
efficient  teachers,  premiums  for  advanced  education  are  desirable 
in  formal  salary  schedules.  The  figures  indeed  suggest  that  the 
premiums  now  given  in  such  formal  salary  schedules  are  too  low 
in  the  case  of  education  and  too  high  relatively  in  the  case  of 
experience   in   teaching. 

Neither  experience  in  teaching  nor  amount  of  education  is  so 
important  in  determining  relative  salaries  as  the  differences 
amongst  teachers  in  other  respects;  that  is,  in  native  gifts  and  in 
the  quality  rather  than  the  quantity  of  their  education.  That 
teachers  of  the  same  amount  of  experience  and  education  vary 
enormously  as  to  salaries  is  shown  by  every  group  recorded  in  the 
tables.  For  instance,  of  the  men  who  have  taught  from  ten  to 
fourteen  years  and  who  had  each  8  years  education  in  advance  of 
the  elementary  school,  some  receive  four,  and  even  five,  times  as 
much  per  year  as  others. 

Dr.  L.  D.  Coffman  ['ii]  has  measured  these  relations  in  the 
cases  of  a  miscellaneous  group  made  up  very  largely  of  elementary 
school  teachers,  from  the  United  States  as  a  whole.    He  writes: 

"  The  salary  paid  teachers  in  general,  particularly  where  free 
competition  obtains,  is  one  criterion  or  objective  measure  of  their 
efficiency  in  general.  Common  observation  and  common  sense 
teach  us  that  in  the  case  of  numerous  individuals  and  of  certain 
communities  and  institutions,  salaries  cannot  be  regarded  as 
true  measures  of  efficiency.  That  they  cannot  is  due:  (i)  to  the 
operation  of  idealistic,  sentimental,  religious,  political,  blood-kin 
considerations;  (2)  to  the  unfair  and  unequal  administration  of 
municipal  or  commercial  affairs  in  the  distribution  of  moneys  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  different  forms  of  public  protection  and 
public  service;  and  (3)  to  the  lack  of  definite  standards  by  which 
to  judge  teaching  efficiency.     Nevertheless  it  seems  true  as  a 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    95 

general  proposition  that  difTerences  in  salaries  in  a  given  locality 
in  either  sex  must  be  regarded  as  indicative  of  differences  in 
teaching  efficiency ;  and  also  differences  in  salaries  among  different 
localities,  provided  the  communities  compared  have  approxi- 
mately equal  standards  of  living  and  are  of  equal  wealth,  and 
competition  among  teachers  is  equally  free,  indicate  different 
community  estimates  of  teaching  efficiency. 

No  effort  is  made  in  the  tables  that  follow  to  compare  salaries 
in  a  given  community  or  between  given  communities.  The  tables 
merely  show  what  the  general  tendency  is,  to  what  extent  salaries 
in  general  are  influenced  by  experience.  Supposing  that  the 
standards  of  living  in  the  different  places  in  this  report  do 
not  differ  radically,  this  general  tendency  becomes  a  fairly 
accurate  registration  of  the  value  American  people  set  upon 
experience.   .   .   . 

TABLE  21 
Table  Showing  Relation  of  Experience  of  Men  Teachers  to  Salary 


Salary 


Years  of  Experience 


IS-     20-|2S- 

19     24  ;  -f- 


$150 
200 
250 
300 

3  so 

400 

450 

Soo 

SSO 

600 

650 

700 

750 

800 

850 

900 

9SO 

1,000 

1.250 

1,500 

1.750 

2,000 


29 
30 


s  s 

I 
6 
2 

6  3 
5  4 

7  4 

1  I 

2  5 


Total       III   88  83   79   78  65   74  44   48   46  37,  67j  74  102   69  113 
Median     $328  370  430  430  459  485  550  Si7  5^5  488  692  592  675  680  558  632 


96 


Educational  Administration 


"  Table  21  shows  that  the  1 1 1  men  teachers  with  no  experience 
are  receiving  salaries  ranging  from  $150  to  $700;  that  88  men 
teachers  with  one  year  of  experience  are  receiving  salaries  rang- 
ing from  $150  to  $1,000,  and  so  on.  Table  22  reads  in  the  same 
way  for  women. 

TABLE   22 
Table  Showing  Relation  of  Experience  of  Women  Teachers  to  Salary 


Y 

ears 

OF  Experience 

Salary 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II- 
12 

13- 
14 

15- 
19 

20- 
24 

25 

+ 

$150 

39 

21 

18 

13 

II 

8 

4 

2 

3 

I 

I 

2 

200 

36 

29 

18 

7 

5 

3 

3 

1 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

250 

73 

68 

28 

25 

17 

10 

6 

9 

3 

2 

2 

3 

6 

I 

300 

104 

107 

S3 

53 

21 

20 

10 

14 

5 

5 

S 

7 

S 

8 

I 

I 

35° 

74 

103 

63 

51 

43 

38 

32 

16 

" 

17 

10 

10 

12 

9 

10 

5 

400 

6S 

93 

no 

55 

43 

38 

29 

27 

12 

II 

16 

14 

9 

16 

6 

7 

4SO 

47 

S3 

S7 

S8 

62 

39 

45 

20 

24 

21 

27 

21 

26 

27 

IS 

22 

500 

24 

23 

43 

25 

^i 

42 

33 

14 

23 

II 

IS 

12 

12 

16 

16 

9 

550 

7 

9 

22 

10 

28 

14 

9 

24 

11 

2 

8 

IS 

II 

28 

5 

13 

600 

4 

14 

19 

23 

19 

!« 

41 

30 

26 

22 

29 

32 

28 

SO 

31 

21 

650 

7 

7 

14 

9 

24 

13 

12 

12 

II 

3 

14 

8 

7 

IS 

8 

II 

700 

7 

6 

9 

6 

7 

5 

2 

6 

3 

4 

II 

8 

14 

7 

6 

750 

I 

4 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

3 

5 

4 

S 

8 

8 

7 

6 

800 

I 

I 

I 

4 

5 

5 

7 

8 

7 

7 

12 

IS 

8 

11 

IS 

20 

900 

I 

2 

I 

3 

I 

4 

3 

I 

4 

II 

II 

1000 

I 

I 

3 

6 

7 

Total 

482 

539 

456 

342 

325 

262 

24s 

186 

147 

no 

153 

159 

138 

213 

140 



140 

Median 

«345 

372 

422 

420 

468 

468 

493 

S14 

532 

495 

S48 

568 

564 

592 

624 

629 

"  The  median  salary  of  men  with  no  experience  is  $328,  with 
one  year  of  experience  $370,  with  two  years  $430,  with  ten  years 
$692,  etc.  The  median  salary  of  women  with  no  experience  is 
$345,  with  one  year  of  experience  $372,  with  two  years  $422, 
with  ten  years  $548,  etc. 

"  The  tables  show  that  the  income  of  a  group  with  a  given  expe- 
rience, varies  greatly.  The  ratio  with  which  this  income  increases 
also  varies  greatly  with  individuals,  some  reaching  their  maximum 
in  three  years  while  others  take  twenty.  In  the  main,  however, 
all  salary  advances  due  merely  to  experience  take  place  compar- 
atively early  in  the  teacher's  career." 

Dr.  Coffman  measured  also  the  relation  of  salary  to  length  of 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    97 

700 
600 
500 


^400 

o 
o 

Isoo 


200 


100 


^ — 

_^ — 

— '"" 

y 

"^^^ 

^"^ 

/ 

y 

/ 

9  2  15  18 

Years  of  Experience 


Z\ 


24 


27 


Fig.  II.  The  relation  of  length  of  experience  to  salary,  using  the  median 
salaries  to  determine  the  graph.  The  solid  line  is  for  men  teachers;  the  broken,  for 
women  teachers.  The  horizontal  line  is  the  scale  in  length  of  experience  in  years. 
The  vertical  scale  represents  the  amount  of  salary. 

education.  I  quote  only  the  median  salaries  for  the  diflferent 
amounts  of  education  beyond  the  elementary  school.  These 
were,'  for  men  and  women  separately: 

Median  Salaries  in  Dollars  Per  Year 

o        I        2        3        4        5        6  7        89  or  more 

Men 455    411     421     438    457     534    658  800  975         1083 

Women 405     376    426    449    424    471     510  561  638  650 

The  essential  facts  can  be  seen  most  easily  in  graphic  form, 
as  in  Figure  12.    Of  these  facts  Dr.  Coffman  says: 

"There  is.no  uniform  tendency  or  relation  existing  between 
salary  and  education.     '  Education '  in  this  report  means  training 


98 


Educational  Administration 


1000 


900 


800 


700 


to  600 

o 

o 

^.500 
::^ 

I. 
o 

D 


200 


100 


71^^: 


*400-^^ 


300 


0  I  23456789  10 

Years  of  Education  beyond  Elementary  School 

Fig.  12. — The  relation  of  salary  to  amount  of  education,  using  the  median  salaries 
to  determine  the  graph.  The  solid  line  is  for  men  teachers;  the  broken  line  is 
for  women  teachers. 

beyond  the  elementary  school;  it  covers  high  school,  normal 
school,  and  university  work.  One  year  therefore  is  not  of  equal 
value  with  another  year.  Those  with  four  years  of  training  are 
in  most  cases  high  school  graduates,  those  with  six  years  normal 
school  graduates,  those  with  eight  years  college  graduates.  .  .  . 
"Two  extremely  important  facts  are  revealed  by  this  relation- 


The  Causes  and  Conditions  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching    99 

ship:  (i)  The  first  four  3'ears  of  training  beyond  the  elementary 
schools  have  little  or  no  efTect  upon  salary;  (2)  correlation  be- 
tween salary  and  education  becomes  increasingly  marked  with 
each  succeeding  year  after  the  fourth  year.  A  premium  is  thus 
placed  upon  advanced  academic  and  professional  training.  No 
doubt  such  training  selects  those  who  have  the  inborn  capacity  to 
profit  by  it  most,  but  this  extra  training  is  their  one  best  means 
of  advertising  to  the  world  their  peculiar  native  strength. 

"As  the  standard  number  of  years  of  training  teachers  have  had 
is  four,  and  as  they  receive  a  median  salary  of  $457,  public  school 
authorities  pay  the  average  male  teacher  with  5  years  of  training 
$77  more;  with  6  years  of  training  $201  more;  with  7  years  of 
training  $343  more;  with  8,  $526  more;  and  with  9  or  more  years, 
$626  more. 

"The  average  female  public  school  teacher  with  5  years  of 
training  receives  $47  more  than  the  standard;  with  6  years,  $86 
more;  with  7  years,  $137  more;  with  8  years,  $214  more;  and  with 
9  or  more  years,  $231  more." 


§  lo.  The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Teachers 

Who  are  the  teachers  of  our  children?  The  answer  to  this 
question  will  throw  much  light  upon  the'  attempt  to  evaluate  the 
education  which  we  are  offering  to  our  citizens  of  to-morrow.  We 
are  in  the  habit  of  saying  that  teachers  should  have  more  salary. 
What  kind  of  teachers  do  we  get  for  the  money  we  pay?  Is  there 
any  relation  between  the  amount  of  salary  a  teacher  receives  and 
the  amount  of  training  secured  by  him?  From  what  social  group 
do  teachers  come?  These  and  many  other  similar  questions  must 
be  answered  by  any  one  who  would  attempt  to  judge  of  the  effi- 
ciency of  our  public  systems  of  education.  In  the  investigation 
by  Professor  L.  D.  Coffman  entitled  "The  Social  Composition 
of  the  Teaching  Population,"  we  have  the  answer  to  our  ques- 
tions. 

Dr.  Coffman's  research  is  based  upon  the  answers  received 
to  a  questionnaire  which  was  answered  by  5,215  teachers  selected 
at  random  in  seventeen  states.  Most  of  the  answers  were  secured 
from  teachers  who  were  in  attendance  upon  their  annual  insti- 
tutes. The  purpose  of  the  questionnaire  was  explained  and  replies 
were  received  from  all  of  those  present.  Only  a  few  of  Dr.  Coff- 
man's  tables  of  results  can  be  presented  here.  The  order  in 
which  they  are  given  is  chosen  by  the  writer.  The  tables  are  in 
the  main  self-explanatory. 

When  we  ask,  Who  are  the  teachers  of  our  children,  we  must 
inquire  concerning  the  families  from  which  teachers  come.  The 
social  status  and  the  income  of  the  parents  of  teachers  limits  the 
social  inheritance  which  these  teachers  transmit  to  children. 
The  following  tables  giving  the  occupations  of  parents,  their 
income,  and  the  number  of  brothers  and  sisters  present  a  clear 


The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Teac/iers        loi 

picture  of  the  social  and  economic  groui>s  represented  by  the 
families  from  which  teachers  are  recruited. 

TABLE  23 
Racz  AMD  Nativity  of  Womeii  Teacbess 

WoMEM  1 6  Yeaks  or  Ace  and  Ovee 


RaCX  AMD  NaTIVITT 

ACCKECATE 

Ix  Cities  Ha\isc  at 
Least  50,000  Ikbab. 

Lv  Smaller  Cities  and 
CouxTKY  Districts 

Total 

Teacben 

Total 

Teachers 

Total 

Teachers 

No.    i,l" 

:  10,000 

No.    L?^ 

IO/XX> 

No. 

Per 
1,000 

Nsthre  white,  both 
parents  oative.  . . . 

Native  white,  one  or 
both   parents   for- 
eign bom 

Foreign  bom,  white 

12,130,161 

4,288,969 

4w403h»94 

207,823 

88,449 
17,218 

I7X 

206 
39 

I.703.9SS 

t  ,700,209 
2,095,206 

35,514    208 

30,670     180 
7.5S3       36 

10,426,206 

2,588,760 
2,308,288 

72J09 

57.779 
9/)6s 

i6s 

223 
42 

TABLE  24 
DisTUBcnoN  OP  Men  Teachers  Accoroisc  to  the  Occupation  op  Their  Fathers 


« 

2 

s 

1 

0 

i 

s 

•6 
S 

i 

i 

e 
0 

S 

X 

z 

5^ 

(5 

e     M      « 

Total 

Not  answered 

Farmers. 

4 
29 

2 
3 

2 

47 
3 

20 

245 

13 

II 

5 

6 
6 
3 

2 

I 

I 

21 

3 

I 

2 

2 
27 
7 
6 
5 
2 

4 

T 

si 

3 

I 

I 

3 

I 
I 

«    'r  H 
j\    8,    8 

10      Oi      c 

3!     .      I 
14!     9!  20 

*      5;      I 

li        1     t 

» 

5 

7 
9 

2 

6    24 
9    19 

I      3 

3 

I 

Pub.  officials. 

Retired 

I 

i 

u 

Totals 

40 

72 

331 

18 

I 

27 

49 

10 

98 

5 

4 

72 

no 

138 

20 

15    27 

1037 

TABLE  25 
DiSTUBcnoN  op  Women  Teachers  Aocorddcc  to  the  Occtipation  op  Their  Fathers 


Not  answered. 

Fanners. 

Prof.  men. .  . . 

Biisinesa . 

Artisans. 

Laborers. .... 
Pub.  offidab. . 

Retired 

Invalids 


2   5  IJS  loUS  1:2 


3     17     44i 
47  127  198 


12  42 

26  82 

22  83 

30  35 

3  10 

7  II 


6|      3  4 

8j   33  55 

o{     6  6 

3;     4!  II 
5 


12 


22 


s  s 


s  s  ,  z  I  z 


26! 


2;    12 


1281  36  145!  lol   i9|io3 


23 1  6,  19: 

58  II.  40; 

62;  16  16, 

34;  10  23 


H  It- 


29  18  3  3  6 

335  73  22  24  46 

26  12  13  6  2 

10  106    47  36  23  4  4 

19  lo6i  96  33  II  5  8 


61I   76,  37 

6    II       4\ 
12     14      4 


Total 


214 
493 


Totak '96245506    58'  75    93  344'  85  263    30    54  466  636  217'  83    44    72     3j67 


I02 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE    26 
Summary  of  Tables  24  and  25  in  Percentages 


Women 


Percentage  who  are  the  children  of  farmers 

Percentage  who  are  the  children  of  men  in  professional  life  .  .  . 

Percentage  who  are  the  children  of  business  men 

Percentage  who  are  the  children  of  artisans 

Percentage  who  are  the  children  of  laborers 

Percentage  who  are  the  children  of  public  ofllcials 

TABLE   27 
The  Relation  of  the  Occupation  of  Tarents  of  Teachers  to  Parental  Income 


Farmers 

Professions 

Business 

Artisans 

Laborer 

Officials 

Income 

M.      W.Tot. 

M. 

W.  Tot. 

M. 

W. 

Tot. 

M. 

W.jTot. 

M.  W. 

Tot. 

M. 

W.|  Tot. 

—$250 

88  122    210 

I 

10        II 

I 

13 

14 

6 

13 

19 

11     3S 

46 

2 

3 

$230—  500 

167  218!  38s 

II 

IQ            30 

7 

25 

32 

17 

40 

63 

26 

86 

112 

I 

4 

S 

Soo—  750 

118  182,  300 

9 

29            38 

7 

25 

32 

18 

7S 

93 

IS 

1 09 

124 

2 

S 

7 

750—1000 

95  194;   289 

14 

34         48 

10 

68 

78 

19  113 

132 

8 

46 

54 

I 

II 

12 

1000 — 1250 

62  150 

212 

8 

29 

37 

8 

<J9 

77 

7 

92 

99 

3 

9 

12 

I 

12 

13 

1250 — 1500 

22    47 

09 

3 

17 

30 

S 

37 

42 

4 

24 

28 

2 

2 

I 

4 

5 

1500—1750 

14    35 

49 

3 

6 

9 

2 

IS 

17 

4 

IS 

19 

I 

4 

5 

I 

I 

3 

1750—2000 

28    59 

87 

4 

16 

20 

3 

36 

39 

I 

19 

20 

I 

I 

3 

3 

2000  + 

37  104 

1141 

5 

33         38 

IS 

lOI 

n6 

3 

28 

31 

^ 

3 

I 

8 

9 

1742 

261 

447 

504 

359 

58 

Median 

«730 

$1025 

$1219 

S8«)6 

«542 

j$io58 

Quartile 

31S 

447 

575 

287 

189 

1     36s 

TABLE   28 
The  Relation  of  NuMBE-i  of  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Teachers  to  the  Occupation  of  Fathers 


Farmers 


M.i  W.   Tot 


3  •■  ■  • 
4. .  .  . 

5 

6 

7  . . .  . 

8 

Q.  ..  . 

10  ...  . 

11  ...  . 

12  ...   . 

13  ...  . 
14.  .  .  . 
15  ...   . 

16 

17  ...   . 

Median 
25  P..  . 
75  P..  . 


log 
226 
249 
304 
256 
254 
206 
167 
117 
76 
36 


Professional 


Business 


Artisans 


Laborers 


Officials 


M-i  W.I  Tot.    M.   VV.   Tot.  I  M.   W.  Tot.     M,  W.   Tot.  ,  M.  W.  Tot. 


4  10 
III  37 

8i  44! 
II,  38 

9;  42 

8  13 
20 
14 

3      9 

3 

4 


2044 


i6j 


306' 


33 


8:  45 
81 1   III   74 
861   16    90 
7 1   99 
8!   6s 
12I   53 
41 


61  16 
4  16 
3     12 

2[       S 

i;    4 


5491 


S3  S  19 
85  6  52 
106    13    62 


106 

73 
65 

42 


601 


61 

7:  54 

6  30 

7;  27 

2  16 

3|  16 

2  3 

2i  3 

5 


409 


64 


lite  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Teachers        103 

The  relation  between  parental  income  and  years  of  training 
beyond  the  elementary  school  secured  before  beginning  to  teach 
and  between  parental  income  and  the  age  at  which  teaching  was 
begun  appear  in  the  following  tables.  The  income  of  parents 
indicated  in  the  table  by  o,  i,  2,  3,  etc.,  are  (o)  less  than  $250; 

(i)  $25o-$5oo;  (2)  $5oo-$75o;   (3)  $750-$!, 000; (9) 

$2,250-12,500. 


TABLE   2g 
The  Relation  of  Parental  Income  to  Years  of  Trainino  op  Men  Teachers 


Parental  Income 


Training 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0 

25 

12 

33 

18 

9 

10 

3 

3 

3 

6 

I 

S 

31 

37 

14 

13 

6 

2 

4 

6 

2 

9 

28 

44 

21 

16 

12 

3 

I 

4 

9 

3 

12 

iS 

ii 

25 

25 

13 

3 

3 

4 

6 

4 

20 

29 

SI 

47 

Zi 

21 

9 

2 

8 

8 

S 

s 

7 

36 

22 

25 

lO 

3 

6 

4 

6 

6 

8 

9 

17 

22 

19 

9 

4 

4 

6 

3 

7 

4 

6 

7 

14 

13 

9 

6 

2 

3 

5 

8 

10 

7 

13 

12 

16 

9 

3 

3 

6 

0 

9 

2 

I 

3 

3 

2 

4 

3 

10 

I 

5 

2 

4 

5 

3 

I 

3 

Totals 

lOI 

148 

279 

300 

175 

108 

39 

24 

43 

61 

Median 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

4 

4 

TABLE  30 
The  Relation  of  Parental  Income  to  Years  of  Training  of  Women  Teachers 


Parental  Income 

Training 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0 

65 

40 

51 

35 

IS 

10 

2 

6 

5 

15 

I 

51 

ii 

SO 

39 

35 

10 

6 

6 

7 

17 

2 

77 

40 

50 

50 

44 

32 

7 

8 

16 

21 

3 

129 

60 

80 

77 

91 

S8 

17 

15 

22 

28 

4 

241 

89 

128 

146 

1 54 

134 

40 

26 

39 

71 

5 

150 

44 

68 

78 

93 

73 

23 

14 

31 

45 

6 

125 

44 

66 

s^ 

83 

55 

21 

8 

22 

69 

7 

48 

9 

13 

18 

17 

24 

10 

3 

4 

16 

8 

39 

7 

14 

II 

14 

16 

8 

3 

II 

36 

9 

12 

I 

3 

I 

5 

2 

3 

3 

7 

10 

I 

3 

7 

I 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Totals 

938 

370 

529 

5" 

SS4 

417 

140 

89 

160 

328 

Median 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

I04  Educational  Administration 

TABLE  31 
Relation  of  Parental  Income  to  Beginning  Age  of  Men  Teachers 


Parental  Income 

Beginning  Age 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

i6 

7 

Q 

2 

5 

4 

I 

I 

3 

17 

8 

25 

18 

12 

6 

2 

2 

5 

9 

ig 

16 

65 

44 

47 

21 

12 

3 

10 

10 

19 

32 

56 

27 

31 

24 

4 

4 

8 

14 

20 

35 

45 

38 

25 

18 

3 

7 

8 

7 

31 

25 

31 

36 

19 

12 

6 

3 

5 

5 

33 

10 

19 

14 

14 

6 

4 

2 

3 

33 

5 

9 

9 

10 

7 

3 

I 

2 

24 

2 

9 

5 

5 

4 

I 

2 

3 

as 

4 

4 

2 

4 

2 

3 

I 

I 

36 

I 

2 

I 

3 

3 

27 

2 

I 

28 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

29 

I 

I 

I 

30 

3 

I 

2 

Totals 

147 

277 

199 

174 

108 

.39 

24 

43 

61  • 

Median  age 

20.3 

19.7 

20.2 

19.7 

19.7 

20.0 

20.3 

19.7 

19.6 

TABLE  32 
Relation  of  Parental  Income  to  Beginning  Age  of  Women  Teachers 


Parental  Income 

Beginning  Age 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

16 

17 

25 

18 

10 

16 

3 

3 

13 

17 

57 

66 

SO 

53 

48 

9 

10 

16 

15 

18 

107 

139 

163 

176 

100 

29 

20 

39 

76 

19 

62 

95 

98 

137 

105 

33 

29 

36 

62 

20 

54 

los 

88 

87 

62 

20 

16 

21 

47 

31 

39 

49 

40 

38 

35 

20 

6 

15 

61 

33 

19 

25 

22 

24 

17 

9 

2 

10 

18 

23 

6 

8 

13 

9 

12 

5 

3 

6 

IS 

34 

2 

7 

4 

9 

4 

4 

3 

8 

as 

3 

2 

4 

I 

2 

3 

I 

4 

3 

36 

2 

I 

3 

3 

2 

2 

I 

37 

3 

3 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

28 

I 

I 

I 

2 

29 

2 

3 

I 

30 

6 

I 

I 

4 

2 

I 

Totajg 

377 

528 

506 

548 

413 

^36  „ 

87 

159^ 

323 

Median  age 

19.1 

19  3 

19  3 

19.2 

19.4 

19.8 

19-5 

19.6 

20.0 

Dr.  Coffman's  conclusions,  amply  justified  by  the  data  studied, 
are  given  below.  Attention  is  called  in  particular  to  the  questions 
with  which  this  summary  closes. 


The  Social  and  Economic  Status  of  Teachers       105 

"The  Typical  American  Teacher" 

"The  typical  American  male  public  school  teacher,  assuming 
that  he  can  be  described  in  terms  of  the  medians  previously 
referred  to,  but  remembering  that  a  median  is  a  point  about 
which  individuals  vary  and  that  our  hypothetical  individual  is 
as  likely  to  be  below  as  above  it,  is  twenty-nine  years  of  age,  hav- 
ing begun  teaching  when  he  was  almost  twenty  years  of  age  after 
he  had  received  but  three  or  four  years  of  training  beyond  the 
elementary  school.  In  the  nine  years  elapsing  between  the  age 
he  began  teaching  and  his  present  age,  he  has  had  seven  years 
of  experience  and  his  salary  at  the  present  time  is  $489  a  year. 
Both  of  his  parents  were  living  when  he  entered  teaching  and 
both  spoke  the  English  language.  They  had  an  annual  income 
from  their  farm  of  $700  which  they  were  compelled  to  use  to  sup- 
port themselves  and  their  four  or  five  children. 

"His  first  experience  as  a  teacher  was  secured  in  the  rural 
schools,  where  he  remained  for  two  years  at  a  salary  of  $390  per 
year.  He  found  it  customary  for  rural  school  teachers  to  have 
only  three  years  of  training  beyond  the  elementary  school,  but 
in  order  for  him  to  advance  to  a  town  school  position  he  had  to 
get  an  additional  year  of  training.  He  also  found  that  in  case  he 
wished  to  become  a  city  school  teacher  that  two  more  years  of 
training  or  six  in  all  beyond  the  elementary  school  were  needed. 

"His  salary  increased  rather  regularly  during  the  first  six  years 
of  his  experience,  or  until  he  was  about  twenty-six  years  of  age 
After  that  he  found  that  age  and  experience  played  a  rather 
insignificant  part  in  determining  his  salary,  but  that  training  still 
afforded  him  a  powerful  leverage. 

"The  typical  American  female  teacher  is  twenty-four  years  of 
age,  having  entered  teaching  in  the  early  part  of  her  nineteenth 
year  when  she  had  received  but  four  years  training  beyond  the 
elementary  schools.    Her  salary  at  her  present  age  is  $485  a  year. 


io6  Educational  Administration 

She  is  native  born  of  native  born  parents,  both  of  whom  speak 
the  EngHsh  language.  When  she  entered  teaching  both  of  her 
parents  were  living  and  had  an  annual  income  of  approximately 
$800  which  they  were  compelled  to  use  to  support  themselves 
and  their  four  or  five  children.  The  young  woman  early  found  the 
pressure  both  real  and  anticipated  to  earn  her  own  way  very 
heavy.  As  teaching  was  regarded  as  a  highly  respectable  calling 
and  as  the  transfer  from  school  room  as  a  student  to  it  as  a  teacher 
was  but  a  step,  she  decided  upon  teaching. 

"Her  first  experience  as  a  teacher  was  gotten  in  the  rural 
school  where  she  remained  but  two  years.  If  she  went  from  there 
to  a  town  school  her  promotion  was  based  almost  solely  upon  her 
experience  as  no  additional  training  was  required  by  the  officials 
of  the  town.  If  she  desired  to  teach  in  a  city  school,  she  was 
compelled  to  secure  at  least  one  more  year  of  training  in  all,  but 
each  additional  year  of  training  she  found  increased  her  salary. 

"So  far  she  has  profited  each  year  of  her  brief  experience  by 
having  her  salary  increased  and  this  will  probably  be  true  for 
the  next  two  years  should  she  find  it  necessary  to  remain  in  teach- 
ing that  long. 

"Into  the  hands  of  teachers  who  more  or  less  nearly  conform 
to  the  above  description  is  given  the  duty  of  transmitting  the 
culture  of  the  race  to  the  youth  of  the  land,  of  training  them  in 
habits  of  thinking,  in  modes  of  behavior,  in  methods  of  work, 
and  in  intelhgent  appreciations.  Some  of  the  unanswered  ques- 
tions are :  What  initiative  and  resourcefulness  have  such  teachers? 
What  perspective  due  to  thorough  preparation  have  they  secured? 
What  vision  of  the  possibilities  of  the  calling  do  they  possess? 
What  modicum  do  they  add  to  our  professional  inheritance?  What 
chance  has  the  average  American  boy  or  girl  of  being  wisely  and 
intelligently  educated  by  the  average  American  teacher,  male 
or  female?" 


§11.  The  Supervision  of  Special  Subjects 

The  practice  of  supervision  varies  widely  in  the  United  States. 
In  most  cities  supervisors  may  be  roughly  classified  into  two 
groups;  general  supervisors  who  have  oversight  of  all  of  the 
subjects  taught  in  a  school,  a  group  of  schools  or  one  or  more 
grades  in  a  group  of  schools,  and  special  supervisors  who  direct 
the  work  in  a  single  subject  in  all  of  the  grades  of  a  group  of 
schools.  The  first  group  of  supervisors  are  variously  named, 
superintendents,  assistant  and  district  superintendents,  grammar 
grade  and  primary  supervisors,  and  principals.  In  the  second 
group  are  special  supervisors  of  music,  drawing,  penmanship, 
manual  training,  physical  education,  sewing,  domestic  science. 
The  general  supervisors  are  the  highest  paid  men  and  women 
in  our  school  systems.  They  are  expected  to  have  general  con- 
trol of  schools  with  respect  to  organization,  curriculum,  disci- 
pline, methods  of  instruction  and  the  like.  With  the  increase 
is  administrative  responsibility,  found  in  the  office  of  superintend- 
ent or  of  principal  of  a  large  school,  these  officers  tend  to  pay 
more  attention  to  organization  and  less  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
teaching  done  in  the  schools  under  their  direction.  Their  work 
is  often  supplemented  by  the  primary  or  grammar  grade  super- 
visor who  devotes  almost  all  of  his  time  to  the  professional  growth 
of  teachers,  the  proper  organization  of  the  course  of  study  and 
the  like. 

With  the  introduction  of  new  subjects  with  which  the  general 
supervisor  is  not  familiar  or  which  he  feels  unable  to  supervise 
adequately  there  is  a  demand  for  a  special  supervisor.  These  spe- 
cial supervisors  vary  in  our  cities  from  men  and  women  who  are 
merely  special  teachers  to  those  who  are  in  fact  supervisors  who 
direct  the  work  of  many  special  teachers  or  who  train  the  regular 

107 


io8  Educational  Administration 

grade  teacher  to  teach  the  special  subject.  The  ffequency  with 
which  these  special  supervisors  or  teachers  are  employed  in  cities 
having  more  than  8,000  inhabitants,  the  sex  selection,  the  respon- 
sibility which  these  supervisors  assume  and  the  salaries  paid  to 
them  are  among  the  topics  most  carefully  treated  in  Professor 
W.  A.  Jessup's  "Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision." 
Some  of  the  tables  from  Dr.  Jessup's  study  are  given  below. 

TABLE  33 

Percentages  of  Cities  Reporting  the  Employment  of  Supervisors  of  Special 

Subjects  in  1908 

Music 85.42 

Drawing 75  •  8i 

Penmanship 21.39 

Manual  Training 43 .  40 

Sewing 18 .  60 

Domestic  Science 30 .  07 

Physical  Education 20. 15 

"In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  striking  increase  in  the 
number  of  cities  employing  specialists.  This  has  been  especially 
true  of  music,  drawing  and  manual  training.  Distribution  for 
the  location  of  the  cities  brings  out  the  fact  that  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  practice  of  employing  specialists  has  been  largely 
confined  to  the  states  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  North  Central 
divisions.  Distribution  for  size  of  cities  indicates  that  the  prac- 
tice has  for  the  most  part  started  in  the  larger  cities,  extending 
to  the  smaller  cities  later." 


The  Supervision  of  Special  Subjects 


109 


TABLE  34 
The  Distribution,  by  Sex,  of  Supervisors  of  Special  Subjects  (1908) 

(a)  Disliibution  of  men  and  women,  by  subjects  and  location. 

(b)  Percentage  of  women  specialists,  distributed  by  subjects  and  location. 


North 
Atlantic 
States 


South 
Atlantic 
States 


South 
Central 
States 


North 
Central 
States 


Western 
States 


United 

States 

as  a  whole 


(a) 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Manual  Training. 

Sewing 

Domestic  Sci.. . . 
Physical  Edu.. . . 

(bT" 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship. .  . .  - 
Manual  Training. 

Sewing 

Domestic  Sci.. . . 
Physical  Edu.. . . 


26 


x8o  313 
63  3i7 
46 
S3 
67 
171 
62 


493 
430 

119 

263 

67 

171 
IIS 


SI. 83 
80.10 
33-94 
30- 10 
100.00 
loo.oo 
69.38 


80.9s 
76.47 
10.00 
21.0s 
100.00 
100.00 
71.42 


76.66 
93  10 
36.33 
II. II 
100.00 
100.00 
0.00 


70.43 
90.06 
4S-00 
IS. 74 
100.00 
100.00 
40.90 


7S.67 
86.48 
SO. 00 
8.00 
100.00 
100.00 
41.66 


63.41 
8s. 00 
38.6s 
20.14 
100.00 
100.00 
54.78 


"A  return  postal  card  was  submitted  to  a  group  of  specialists 
in  each  subject  selected  at  random. 


Sex. 


Subject  supervised Annual  Salary 

Check  pC)  the  method  which  most  nearly  describes  yours. 
(  )  a.  Sf)ecial  subject  taught  entirely  by  regular  teacher. 
(    )  b.  New  material  taught  by  yourself  or  assistants  at  regular  intervals,  followed 

by  a  drill  on  the  same  by  the  regular  teacher. 
(    )  c.  Special  subject  entirely  under  your  charge  and  all  lessons  given  by  yourself 

or  assistants. 


"Three  hundred  and  forty- three  replies  were  received  from  the 
nine  hundred  and  ninety-eight  cards  sent  out.  Of  this  number 
twenty-five  were  discarded  on  account  of  indefinite  response. 
There  remained  three  hundred  and  eighteen  replies  that  were 
clearly  answered.  These  were  distributed  as  follows :  eighty-three 
represented  specialists  in  music;  eighty-six  in  drawing;  eighteen 
in  penmanship;  twenty- four  in  physical  education;  fifty-eight  in 
manual  training;  thirty- three  in  domestic  science  and  sixteen  in 


no 


Educational  Administration 


sewing.    It  is  thus  seen  that  the  returns  were  related  somewhat 
closely  to  the  number  of  specialists  in  each  field. 

"These  answers  for  each  subject  were  thus  distributed  for 
method  and  size  of  cities." 

TABLE  35 
Differences  in  the  Division  of  Responsibility  (1910) 


(i)  Size  of  City 

Plan 

Music 

Dll,\WING 

Penmanship 

Physical 
Education 

A.     B.     C. 

A.      B.     C.     j       A.      B.     C. 

A.     B.     C. 

8-  10,000 

10-  15,000 

15-  20,000 

20-  30,000 

30-  50,000 

50-100,000 

100-200,000 

200-1,000,000 

1,000,000  and  over 

8     2 
17     2 

1  10     1 

2  7 
362 
2       9 

2       2 

4       I     I 
I 

1       6     3 

1     19     2 

6     I 

I       9     I 

14 
261 
1       I 
252 

2 

I 

4     I 
1     1 

2       1 

3 

1 
1 
2 

I 
1      I 

2 

3 

3     I 
2       8 

Size  of  City 

Plan 

Manual 
Training 

Domestic 
Science 

Sewing 

A.         B. 

C. 

A.          B 

C. 

A.      B.      C. 

8-  10,000 

I 

8 

4 

1 

10-  15,000 

6 

4 

15-  20,000 

3 

2 

I        I 

20-  30,000 

I          I 

4 

3 

3 

30,    50,000 

I         3 

3 

4 

4 

50-100,000 

2 

12 

4 

2      4 

100-200,000 

1 

4 

1 

2 

I               I 

200-1,000,000 

1 

5 

4 

I       3 

1,000,000  and  over 

1 

1 

1 

(2)    Combining  Irrespective  of  Size 
OF  Cities 


Plan 


Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical  Education. 
Manual  Training.  .  . 
Domestic  Science .  .  . 
Sewing 


14 


61 
68 

14 

20 

8 

5 

4 


C. 


46 
28 


Total 


83 
86 
18 
24 
53 
2,^ 
16 


(3)    Percentage  of  Cities 
Following  Plan  C 


Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical  Education .  . 
Manual  Training .  .  .  . 
Domestic  Science  .  .  . 
Sewing 


Per  cent 


9.6 
11.6 
11.11 

8.3 
79-3 
84.8 
62.5 


The  Supervision  of  Special  Subjects 


III 


TABLE  36 
Median  Annual  Salaries  of  Supervisors  of  Special  Subjects  (1908, 


Subject 


Men 


Women 


Middle  50  Per  Cent 


Men 


Women 


Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Manual  Training.  . 
Physical  Education 
Domestic  Science . . 
Sewing 


$1,009.37 
1,116.66 
1,104.16 
1,138.63 
1,141 .66 


$748.38 
807 . 50 
766.66 
795-83 

803.33 
804. 16 
742.80 


$800-$  1, 300 
950-  1,750 
80a-  1,300 
900-  1,500 
900-  1,500 


$600-$  900 

650-  950 

600-  950 

650-  1,000 

600-  1,000 

600-  950 

600-  900 


The  tables  given  above  which  show  salaries  and  responsibility 
assumed  suggest  certain  questions  concerning  the  current  prac- 
tice. It  will  be  noted  that  one-fourth  of  the  women  supervisors 
get  less  than  six  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  When  this  fact  is 
related  to  the  plan  of  work  most  commonly  followed  by  these 
supervisors,  one  may  question  the  wisdom  of  this  kind  of  school 
organization.  What  can  one  expect  from  a  six  hundred  dollar 
teacher  who  visits  the  classroom  occasionally  and  teaches  a  lesson 
in  music,  drawing,  or  physical  culture  which  is  usually  not  vitally 
related  to  anything  else  which  the  children  do.  Fifty-six  per 
cent  of  the  supervisors  follow  this  plan  of  work.  Even  the  higher 
paid  teacher  who  spends  her  time  going  from  room  to  room  teach- 
ing children  with  whom  she  is  unacquainted,  with  very  little  time 
for  conference  with  the  room  teacher,  often  with  very  little  ability 
to  train  the  regular  teacher,  may  not  be  an  entirely  good  invest- 
ment. It  has  seemed  to  the  writer  that  any  subject  taught  in  the 
regular  classroom  should  be  taught  by  the  regular  teaching  stafiF. 
Out  of  a  group  of  ten  or  of  fifty  teachers  in  any  one  building  it 
ought  to  be  possible  to  find  teachers  who  could  undertake  work 
in  music,  drawing,  penmanship,  sewing  and  the  simpler  forms  of 
manual  training.  There  would  be  a  distinct  advantage  in  having 
one  regular  teacher  teaching  the  music  in  three  or  four  rooms 


112  Educational  Administration 

while  other  teachers  with  special  abiUty  undertook  the  work  in 
drawing,  penmanship  or  manual  training.  Such  an  interchange 
of  work  ought  to  make  for  strength  all  along  the  Hnfe.  The  special 
subjects  would  be  taught  by  teachers  acquainted  with  the  children 
and  with  the  whole  curriculum.  If  such  a  plan  of  organization 
were  followed,  it  would  be  the  special  function  of  a  well  paid 
supervisor  to  work  with  teachers  of  special  talent  and  with  more 
than  usual  interest  in  the  field  represented. 


§12.  The  Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  the 
United  States  ^ 

The  Nature  of  the  Data  and  the  Sources  of  Error 

The  data  obtained  from  secondary  schools  concerning  the 
status  of  their  teachers  came  in  response  to  the  blank  reprinted 
below.  The  data  were  not  furnished  at  all  in  the  case  of  some 
few  public  schools  and  many  private  schools.  They  were  incom- 
plete in  still  other  cases,  the  optional  list  of  individualized  facts 
naturally  being  omitted  as  a  general  rule  by  the  very  large  high 
schools. 

There  is  probably  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  those  private 
schools  which  are  below  the  standard  in  their  locality  in  respect 
to  the  salaries  and  preparation  of  their  staff,  to  withhold  the  data 
more  frequently  than  is  done  by  those  which  are  above  the  stan- 
dard. I  should,  in  fact,  consider  that  to  estimate  for  private 
secondary  schools  as  a  whole  from  the  selected  group  that  do  re- 
port, it  would  be  proper  to  figure  the  non-reporting  institutions 
as  about  lo  per  cent  lower  than  those  reporting,  in  salaries  and 
in  the  length  of  education  of  the  staff. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  include  in  the  reports  teachers  of  the 
elementary  grades,  but  this  error  can  be  detected  by  means  of 
certain  facts  reported  in  the  general  blank.  The  staff  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  eliminated  such  cases  from 
the  records. 

Special  Inquiry  Blank  of  the  Bureau  of  Education 
The  information  under  "Special,"  in  all  probability,  will  not 

^  This  section  is  in  the  main  quoted  from  the  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation with  the  same  title  by  Edward  L.  Thomdike  (Bulletin  No.  4,  1909). 

"3 


114 


Educational  Administration 


be  asked  for  again  for  at  least  five  years.  It  is  therefore  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  it  be  given  in  complete  form  and  of 
course  with  great  pains  to  attain  perfect  accuracy. 

SPECIAL 

Give  below  the  number  of  teachers  (including  the  principal) 
receiving  in  cash  the  approximate  annual  salary  indicated.  In 
case  of  a  private  school  state  how  many  of  each  salary  receive 
board  and  lodging  in  addition. 


Less 
than  $400 

$400  to 
$499 

$500  to 
$S99 

1 

$600  to  1  $700  to 

$699         $799 

! 

$800  to 

$899 

$900  to 
$999 

$1000  to 
$1099 

Men 

Women 

Board  and  lodging . 



$1100  to 
$1199 

$1200  to 
$1299 

$1300  to 
$1399 

$1400  to 
$1499 

$1500  to 

$1999 

$2000  to 

$2499 

$2SOO  to 

$2999 

$3000 

or  more 

Men 

Women  .... 

Board  and  lodging  . 

Give  the  number  of  teachers  (including  the  principal)  who  have 
hud  regular  high  school,  normal,  college,  or  other  higher  education 
beyond  the  elementary  school  extending  over  the  periods  indi- 
cated. 


Less 
than  I 
year 

I  up  to  2 
years 

2  up  to  4 
years 

4  up  to  6 
years 

6  up  to  8 
years 

8  up  to  9 
years 

9  up  to 

10  years 

10  years 
or  more 

Men 

Women 

Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States   115 


Give  the  number  of  teachers  (including  the  principal)  who  have 
taught  (previous  to  the  year  1906-7)  the  number  of  years  indi- 
cated. 


Less 
than  I 
year 

I  year 

2  years 

3  years 

4  years 

S  years 

i 
6  years    7  years 

Men 

Women 

8  years 

9  years 

10  to  14 
years 

IS  to  tg 
years 

20  to  24 
years 

25  to  29 
years 

30  to  34 
years 

35  years 
or  more 

Men 

Women 

1 

ALTERNATIVE   FORM 

In  lieu  of  the  statistics  asked  for  in  the  three  special  tables 
above,  it  would  be  more  useful  to  the  bureau  to  have  the  same 
information  given  in  the  form  indicated  in  the  table  below.  In 
column  (A)  give  the  name  of  the  individual  teacher;  (B)  sex;  (C) 
salary  per  year  in  cash;  (D)  state  whether  or  not  board  and  lodg- 
ing are  included;  (E)  state  the  subjects  which  he,  or  she,  teaches; 
(F)  the  number  of  years  the  teacher  spent  as  a  student  in  high 
school;  (G)  number  of  years  as  a  student  in  a  regular  normal 
school,  or  other  school  of  higher  education  beyond  the  high  school; 
(H)  years  of  teaching  experience  previous  to  this  year. 

The  information  given  below  will  be  treated  as  confidential 
with  respect  to  the  institution  and  individuals.  In  case  the  infor- 
mation requested  be  given  in  the  following  table,  the  summarized 
statistics  asked  for  in  the  three  special  tables  above  may  be 
omitted. 


ii6 


Educational  Administration 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F             G 

H 

Names  of  Hij;h  School 
Teachers 

Sex 

Annual 
Salary 

Board 

and 

Lodging 

Subjects  Taught  by 
Each 

J,^'^      Years 
Hon?n"  BeyTd 
tion  in  1    Tjr   c 
H.  S.       "•^• 

Years 
Experi- 
ence 

1 

(Signature  and  title  of  officer  making  this  report.) 


(Post-office  and  street  address.) 


Errors  in  the  Amount  of  Salary  Reported 

In  the  case  of  salary  amounts  there  is  the  possibility,  especially 
in  the  case  of  private  schools  in  cities,  that  teachers  who  give 
only  part  of  their  time  in  return  for  the  salary  will  be  included 
without  a  note  to  that  effect.  This  will,  however,  happen  only 
rarely,  for  the  institutions  concerned  will  naturally  protect  them- 
selves against  any  too  low  estimate  of  their  salary  schedule. 
Where  some  teachers  receive  much  less  than  the  general  average 
for  the  school  I  have  therefore  been  very  cautious  in  including 
them.  There  are  perhaps  a  very  few  such  cases  of  part-time 
salaries  included  in  the  case  of  private  schools  in  cities.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  counterbalancing  cases  of  teachers  in  pri- 
vate schools  who  are  required  to  give  more  time  to  the  work  for 
which  the  salary  is  paid  than  is  the  case  in  public  high  schools. 

The  inequality  in  the  length  of  the  school  year  for  which  the 
salary  is  given  is  not  exactly  a  source  of  error,  but  is  a  factor 
which  must  be  considered  in  interpreting  the  salary  amounts, 
and  particularly  the  variations  toward  very  low  amounts,  which 
come  largely  from  the  Southern  States. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  raise  the  salaries  for  school  years  of  less 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States   117 

than  the  standard  length,  for  the  reason  that,  after  all,  the  salary 
as  it  stands  is,  in  most  cases,  the  teacher's  income.  We  do  not 
know  that  he  gets  or  can  get  a  proportionate  increase  by  utilizing 
the  excess  of  leisure  that  he  has.  He  probably  very  rarely  does. 
It  seems  best,  then,  to  omit  any  hypothetical  correction  of  the 
data  and  to  trust  to  the  reader  to  remember  that  the  average 
length  of  year  for  which  the  salaries  stated  are  given  is  somewhat 
under  the  standard  180  school  days,  and  also  that  some  of  the 
very  low  salaries  are  for  short  years.  The  length  of  year  is  not 
much  below  the  standard,  for  the  schools  concerned  are  high 
schools,  very  few  of  which  are  situated  in  communities  unable 
to  support  a  full  school  year;  and  the  very  lowest  salaries  are 
often  for  a  standard  school  year. 

Errors  in  the  Amount  of  Ediication  Reported 

The  reports  on  the  amount  of  education  are  the  least  secure 
and  unambiguous.  There  is,  on  the  one  hand,  a  tendency  to 
neglect  the  definite  request  to  include  years  in  high  school  in  the 
computation.  A  record  of  4  years  in  high  school  and  4  years 
beyond  high  school  in  the  alternative  form  will  thus  be  sometimes 
counted  in  the  "4  up  to  6  years"  column  instead  of  the  "8  years" 
column.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  misunderstand  the  meaning 
of  "up  to"  as  "up  through,"  and  thus  to  score  4  years  in  the 
"  2  up  to  4  years"  column,  6  years  in  the  "4  up  to  6  years  "  column 
and  so  on.  The  form  of  the  blank  was  designed  to  give  oppor- 
tunity for  properly  counting  parts  of  a  year  (as,  for  instance, 
attendance  on  summer  sessions),  but  it  would  have  been  a  less 
evil,  perhaps,  to  have  used  the  headings  "i  year,"  "2  years," 
"3  years,"  "4  years,"  "5  years,"  and  so  on.  There  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  tendency  to  estimate,  as  belonging  to  high  school 
education,  years  which  should,  by  the  customary  definitions, 
count  only  as  elementary  education,  and  to  estimate  as  collegiate 


ii8  Educational  Administration 

education  years  which,  by  the  customary  definitions,  should 
count  only  as  secondary  education.  The  alternative  form  gives 
a  check  upon  the  first  two  of  these  errors  of  the  reporting  officers 
in  the  many  cases  where  it,  as  well  as  the  upper  part  of  the  special 
form,  is  filled  out. 

In  the  cases  where  it  is  not  filled  out,  usually  cases  of  large 
schools,  the  internal  evidence  of  the  record  or  knowledge  obtained 
from  other  sources  can  serve  as  a  check.  If,  for  instance,  in  a 
large  Massachusetts  high  school  we  have  a  record  like  the  follow- 
ing: 

2  up  to  4        4  up  to  6        6  up  to  8        8  up  to  9        9 
o  2  7  20 

it  is  almost  a  certainty  that  the  reporting  officer  put  the  sixes 
in  the  "4  up  to  6"  column,  the  eights  in  the  "6  up  to  8"  column. 
For  the  completion  of  four  years  in  high  school  and  four  years 
in  college  is  so  general  amongst  the  teachers  in  Massachusetts 
high  schools  that  the  existence  of  a  school  of  1 1  teachers  with  only 
2  of  that  degree  of  education  is  far  less  likely  than  the  existence 
of  error  in  the  report. 

In  estimating  the  condition  of  the  secondary  school  staff  in 
general  with  respect  to  length  of  education  from  the  returns  of 
the  present  census  I  have,  where  both  are  given,  taken  the  alter- 
native form  record  in  preference  to  the  general  distribution,  have 
eliminated  teachers  in  elementary  grades,  and  have  omitted  from 
the  calculation  cases  where  it  seemed  highly  probable  that  the 
reporting  officer  misunderstood  the  blanks;  but  I  have  not  inter- 
fered with  the  reporting  officer's  judgment  as  to  what  constitutes 
elementary  education  or  education  in  advance  of  it.  If  the  unde- 
tected misunderstandings  of  the  request  to  include  high  school 
education  and  of  the  meaning  of  "up  to"  outweigh  the  overesti- 
mations  of  the  length  of  teachers'  education  beyond  a  typical 
elementary  school,  the  general  results  will  rate  the  length  of  the 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States    119 

education  of  secondary  school  teachers  too  low.  If  the  reverse 
is  the  case,  they  will  rate  it  too  high. 

I  have  gone  to  the  pains  of  measuring  the  influence  of  these 
combined  opposite  errors  in  the  case  of  public  high  schools  by  a 
special  inquiry  sent  to  i,cxx»  individual  teachers.  .  .  . 

The  returns  from  this  special  inquiry  show  that  in  the  case  of 
public  high  schools  neither  of  these  errors  is  of  great  magnitude 
in  the  original  reports,  and  that  they  nearly  counterbalance 
each  other. 

Errors  in  the  Length  of  Experience  Reported 

The  reports  concerning  length  of  experience  in  teaching  are 
subject  to  five  sources  of  error,  one  of  which  is  important.  These 
are:  First,  the  tendency  to  report  roughly,  especially  in  round 
numbers;  second,  the  tendency  to  avoid  a  statement  of  o  years; 
third,  the  possible  tendency  of  some  women  to  reduce  the  number 
of  years;  fourth,  the  tendency  of  a  school  system  to  be  generous 
in  rating  its  staff  for  amount  of  experience;  and  fifth,  the  tendency 
to  report  the  number  of  years  of  experience  in  the  present  school 
system,  instead  of  the  total  number.  This  last  source  of  error 
is  the  important  one,  because  its  frequency  and  its  amount  of 
influence  cannot  well  be  measured.  For  the  other  four,  rational 
allowances  can  be  made,  so  that  no  one  of  them  does  any  harm  of 
consequence.  But  the  magnitude  of  the  influence  of  the  fifth, 
due  to  misunderstandings  of  individuals  or  recording  officers,  can- 
not be  foretold.  I  have  therefore  gone  to  some  pains  to  measure 
it  with  the  help  of  the  special  inquiry  described  above. 

The  special  inquiry  shows  that  the  error  of  reporting  experience 
in  the  present  school  only  is  very  rare  in  the  case  of  the  individual- 
ized returns,  being  made  by  only  about  one  teacher  in  fifty.  It  is 
probably  somewhat  more  frequent  in  the  cases  where  the  general 
table  is  made  out  by  the  school  principal  or  secretary. 

There  is  another  tendency  which  is  not  really  an  error,  except 


I20  Educational  Administration 

in  view  of  the  wording  of  the  blank,  and  of  the  fact  that  in  the 
presentation  of  the  data  it  is  desirable  to  estimate  the  length  of 
experience  up  to  the  year  in  which  the  given  salary  is  re- 
ceived. This  in  the  tendency  of  a  person  whose  career  is,  say, 
1904-5,  first  year  of  teaching,  salary  $500;  1905-6,  second  year 
of  teaching,  salary  $600;  1906-7,  third  year  of  teaching,  salary 
$725 — to  report,  salary,  $725;  experience,  three  years.  This 
occurs  in  over  a  third  of  the  cases. 

If  the  reader  will  bear  in  mind  the  nature  of  the  data,  he  will 
nowhere  be  misled  by  the  summaries  that  follow.  In  cases  where 
the  conclusions  are  subject  to  any  considerable  influence  from  the 
above  mentioned  sources  of  error  in  the  original  reports,  the  fact 
will  be  stated. 

The  Teaching  Staff  of  Public  Secondary  Schools 

Salaries.  The  salaries  of  men  teachers  in  public  high  schools 
range  from  less  than  $300  to  $3,500.  If  the  principals  of  the 
schools  are  included  the  upper  limit  becomes  $5,000.  There  is  no 
one  salary  that  can  properly  be  called  typical  in  the  sense  of  repre- 
senting a  tendency  about  which  all  the  salaries  cluster  closely. 
If  one  were  compelled  to  choose  one  amount  as  the  most  likely 
amount  to  be  received  by  a  teacher  or  principal  (in  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  our  high  schools  the  principal  is  a  working  teacher, 
giving  much  over  half  of  his  time  to  class  instruction  and  class 
management),  the  amount  would  be  $700.  Their  median  salary 
is  $900;  that  is,  of  the  men  engaged  in  public  high-school  work 
there  are  as  many  who  receive  less  than  $900  as  there  are  receiv- 
ing more  than  $900.  Of  a  hundred  such  men  5  receive  less  than 
$500,  51  receive  from  $500  up  to  $1,000,  27  from  $1,000  up  to 
$1,500,  10  from  $1,500  up  to  $2,000,  and  7  from  $2,000  up.  Over 
half  (53  per  cent)  of  them  receive  from  $600  to  $1,000,  inclusive.^ 

1  The  $i,ooo-$i,o99  group  is  composed,  to  about  four-fifths  of  its  membership, 
of  salaries  of  exactly  $1,000. 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States    121 


Figure  13  repeats  these  facts,  and  gives  at  a  glance  the  general 
financial  status  of  the  men  engaged  in  public  high  schools  in  the 
United  States. 

The  salaries  of  women  engaged  in  public  high-school  work  range 
from  less  than  $200  to  the  group  $2,5oo-$2,999.  As  with  the  men, 
there  is  no  one  salary  amount  which  is  typical  in  the  sense  of 
representing  a  true  central  tendency;  $550  would  be  the  most 

14 


°8 


-1 

j-J 

^ 

i-'' 

zrCerrf. 

/ 

n 

"— —— _ 

400 


800 


2400 


2800 


3200 


1200  1600  2000 

Salary,    Dollars 

Fig.  13. — Relative  frequencies  of  different  annual  salaries  of  men  teachers  in  public 
high  schools.  The  horizontal  line  is  a  scale  of  salary  amounts  from  o  up.  The 
total  area  enclosed  within  the  heavy  line  and  the  base  line  equals  loo  per  cent. 
The  dash  line  is  derived  from  estimates  from  too  few  cases  to  be  very  reliable. 

suitable  choice  if  a  choice  had  to  be  made.  Nor  would  it  be  so 
misleading  as  the  corresponding  $700  would  be  in  the  case  of  men; 
for  half  of  the  salaries  are  between  $400  and  $675,  inclusive.  The 
median  salary  is  $650.  Of  a  hundred  women  22  receive  less  than 
$500,  59  from  $500  up  to  $1,000,  14  from  $1,000  up  to  $1,500,  and 
5,  $1,500  and  over.  Figure  14  summarizes  the  general  financial 
status  of  women  engaged  in  public  high-school  work. 


122 

18 


Educational  Administration 


14 


«12 
s: 
o 
D 


D 


— 1 

-1 

r 
J 

^^/PerCe 

7/. 

1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 

1    1    t 

1 1. ... 

1    > 

.....1.... I..I  .  1 .... 

,..l_j — 1 — 1 — 

••«»^_^ 

400  700  1000  1500 

Salary,    Dollars 


2000 


Fig.  14. — Relative  frequencies  of  different  annual  salaries  of  women  teachers  in 
public  high  schools.    For  explanation  of  the  diagram,  see  the  legend  of  figure  13. 

The  Teachers'  Education.  The  number  of  years  that  the  man 
engaged  in  secondary  school  work  spent  as  a  student  in  high 
school,  normal  school,  college,  or  other  institution  beyond  the 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States     123 

elementary  school  ranges  from  o  to  13,  or  possibly  higher  in  a  few 
cases.  There  is  no  close  adherence  to  any  one  type  the  country 
over,  though  8  years  is  the  most  common  length.  The  median 
length  is  7  years.  Of  a  hundred  men  10  have  had  less  than  4  years 
beyond  the  elementary  school,  45  have  had  from  4  up  to  8  years, 


m- 

IPerC 

',nt 

w  ^^. 

0I^34  56  7  8  9I0III^ 

Fig.  15. — Relative  frequencies  of  dififerent  amounts  of  education  of  men  teachers  in 
public  high  schools.  The  horizontal  line  is  a  scale  of  length  of  education  be- 
yond the  elementary  school  (in  years).  The  dash  line  is  derived  from  estimates 
from  too  few  cases  to  be  entirely  reliable. 

30  have  had  8  years,  and  15  have  had  9  years  or  more.    Three- 
fifths  have  had  6,  7,  or  8  years.    Figure  15  shows  the  facts. 

The  length  of  education  beyond  the  elementary  school  in  the 
case  of  women  teachers  ranges  from  o  to  12  years,  or  possibly 
higher  in  a  few  cases.  The  typical  condition  is  8  years.  There 
are  somewhat  more  women  who  have  had  8  years  or  more  than 
who  have  had  7  years  or  less.  Of  a  hundred  women,  6  or  7 
have  had  less  than  4  years  beyond  the  elementary  school,  40  or 


124 


Educational  Administration 


41  have  had  from  4  up  to  8  years,  41  to  42  have  had  8  years, 
and  II  or  12  have  had  9  years  or  more.     Figure  16  shows  the 
facts. 
Experience  in  Teaching.  The  amount,  of  experience  in  teaching, 


F 

rCeni: 

n 

01  234BG7  89  10        11  12 

Fig.  16. — Relative  frequencies  of  different  amounts  of  education  of  women  teachers 

in  public  high  schools.    For  explanation  of  the  diagram  see  the  legend  of  figure 

IS- 

previous  to  the  year  for  which  the  salary  was  reported,  as  meas- 
ured in  years,  ranges  for  the  men  from  o  to  beyond  50,  though 
there  are  only  about  three  in  a  hundred  who  have  taught  over 
30  years.  The  inquiry  for  a  typical  length  would,  of  course,  be 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States   125 

absurd.  The  median  is  probably  8  years.  That  is,  as  many 
pubHc  high-school  men  have  taught  over  9  years  as  have  taught 
7  years  or  less.  Table  37  gives  the  facts  as  reported  con- 
cerning the  amount  of  experience  of  the  men  teachers  and 
principals.  > 


25 


20 


0  15 


/ 

^>v 

/ 

A 

/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

M"" 

trCenf. 

^ 

15  20  25 

Years   of  Experience 


30 


55 


40 


Fig.  17. — Relative  frequencies  of  different  amounts  of  experience  in  teaching  of 
men  teachers  in  public  high  schools.  The  total  area  between  the  heavy  line 
and  the  base  line  equals  loo  per  cent. 


Figure  17  gives  the  same  facts  corrected  for  the  tendency  to 
rough  report  and  to  over  report  round  numbers,  and  also  for  the 
tendency  to  report  the  length  of  experience  in  the  present  position, 
to  report  cases  of  o  years  inaccurately,  and  to  include  the  year 
for  which  the  salary  reported  was  received. 

The  length  of  experience  ranges,  for  women,  from  o  years  to 
beyond  50,  with  about  two  in  a  hundred  who  have  taught  over 
30  years.  The  median  is  probably  6  years.  That  is,  probably 
as  many  public  high-school  women  have  taught  7  years  or  more 


126 


Educational  A  dministration 


25 


O20 
0 

0 

«I5 

o> 

o 


f\ 

(       ^ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

^ 

1 

^-- 

.^_ 

15  20  £5 

Years    of    Experience 


30 


35 


40 


Fig.  1 8. — Relative  frequencies  of  different  amounts  of  experience  in  teaching  of 
women  teachers  in  public  high  schools. 

as  have  taught  5  years  or  less.  Table  37  gives  the  facts  as  re- 
ported. Figure  18  corresponds  to  Figure  17,  giving  for  women 
the  same  information  that  Figure  17  gives  for  men. 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States    127 


TABLE  37 

Relative  Frequencies  of  Different  Amounts  of  Experience  in  Teaching 
IN  the  Case  of  Teachers  in  Secondary  Schools  as  Reported  (in  Per- 
centages) 


Years  of  Experience 

Teachers  in  Public  Secondary 

Teachers  in  Private  Secondary 

in  Teaching 

Schools 

Schoob 

Men 

Women 

Men 

Women 

Less  than  i 

2.9] 

s-sl 

4.1I 

6.4I 

I 

5-2 

6 

8 

6 

6 

7-4 

2 

5-5     25-8 

9 

4 

38.6 

10 

0 

35-4 

8.8 

390 

3 

6.0 

9 

0 

6 

9 

8.2 

4 

6.2  1 

7 

9, 

7 

8, 

8.2 

5 

7-7  1 

7 

9 

5 

7 

7.2' 

6 

6.3 

6 

7 

4 

9 

7.2 

7 

6.5  {-29.9 

6 

I 

28.7 

4 

„ 
3 

243 

3-3 

27.2 

8 

6.3 

4 

8 

5 

I 

7.2 

9 

31  J 

3 

2 

4 

I  , 

2.3J 

10-14 

20.4 

151 

14.0 

14.8 

15-19 

12.0 

9.0 

8.0 

9  9 

20-24 

S-9 

S-i 

8.8 

3-7 

25-29 

2.2 

1-7 

5-7 

2.9 

30-34 

1-7 

1-5 

1.6 

1 .0 

35  and  over 

1-4 

•■4 

2-3 

1.6 

Men  Teachers  and  Women  Teachers  Compared.^ 

Figures  19,  20  and  21  show  the  differences  between  men  and 
women  engaged  in  public  secondary  education  with  respect  to 
salaries,  amount  of  education,  and  amount  of  experience,  as  re- 
ported. That  men  are  paid  more  is  of  course  a  familiar  fact,  but 
that  thev  have  less  education  as  a  preparation  has  been  unnoticed, 
and  that  they  remain  in  teaching  so  little  longer  than  women  is  a 
fact  which  flatly  contradicts  common  opinion.    It  is  also  to  be 

*  The  influence  of  the  sources  of  error  described  earlier  is  so  nearly  the  same  for 
men  and  for  women  that  the  comparison  may  be  made  from  the  data  as  reported 
without  risk  of  any  error  worth  considering. 


121 


Educational  Administration 


18- 

<\ 

I     1 

16- 

1       1 

14  - 

1 

1 

12  - 

II 

+ 

v 

c 

l\ 

<0  10  - 

>     \ 

o 

\    \ 

\      1 

w  8- 

i     '^  \ 

« 

Wi  /m      \  \ 

^  G- 

1  /        ;  \ 

4  ■ 

H     'A 

1  /                        X  \ 

1  /                 \V 

2- 

;(         ^^^^ 

10  15  20         25 

5  a  I  a  r  i  e  s 


30 


Fig. 


iQ. — Men  and  women  teachers  in  public  high  schools  compared  with  respect 
to  salaries.  The  continuous  line  incloses  the  surface  of  frequency  for  men's 
salaries.  The  dotted  line  incloses  the  surface  of  frequency  for  women's  salaries. 
The  horizontal  scale  gives  the  salaries  in  hundred  of  dollars. 

t 1 


Fig.  20. — Men  and  women  teachers  in  public  high  schools  compared  with  respect  to 
amount  of  education.  The  continuous  line  refers  to  men;  the  dotted  line  to 
women.  The  horizontal  scale  gives  the  number  of  years  of  education  beyond 
the  elementary  school. 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States  129 

noted  that  there  is  not  so  much  difference  in  the  pay  for  the  same 
(or  ostensibly  the  same)  work  as  the  average  salaries  usually 
quoted  mislead  one  into  believing.  The  average  salaries  are 
compounded  in  part  of,  and  overinfluenced  by,  the  few  large 


Fig.  21. — Men  and  women  teachers  in  public  high  schools  compared  with  respect 
to  length  of  experience  in  teaching.  The  continuous  line  refers  to  men;  the 
dotted  line  to  women. 

salaries  paid  to  heads  of  departments,  principals,  and  those  whom 
we  may  call  "managing  teachers,"  who,  without  official  recogni- 
tion in  title,  are  expected  to  do  the  lion's  share  in  the  organization 
and  control  of  the  school.  All  these  are  much  more  often  men 
than  women.  Consequently,  whereas  in  our  group  the  average 
salary  of  a  man  is  about  41  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  a 
woman,  the  modal  salary  (that  is,  the  most  frequent  or  most 
typical  salary)  is  only  33.3  per  cent  greater. 


Public  and  Private  Secondary  School  Teachers  Compared 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  public  secondary  education  has 
been  increasing  more  rapidly  than  private  in  respect  to  number  of 
students,  number  of  teachers,  annual  expenses,  and  the  like.  It 
is  therefore  of  interest  to  compare  the  two  with  respect  to  the 
present  condition  of  the  teaching  staff. 

If  the  reports  from  public  high  schools  in  general  and  from 


130  Educational  Administration 

private  high  schools  in  general  are  compared,  one  gets  the  follow- 
ing results :  The  public  high  school  men  teachers  are  paid  about 
a  tenth  less  and  have  had,  roughly,  a  half  year  less  of  education. 
The  public  high  school  women  teachers,  on  the  contrary,  are  paid 
about  a  tenth  more  than  the  private  high  school  women,  and 
have  had,  roughly,  a  year  more  of  education.  In  length  of  expe- 
rience there  is  no  appreciable  difference. 

But  such  a  comparison  may  be  misleading,  if  taken  at  its  face 
value,  for  two  reasons.  First,  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  the 
private  schools  send  the  information,  and,  as  already  remarked, 
there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  those  which  withhold 
it  are  not  quite  so  well  off  in  the  pay  they  give  to  their  teachers 
or  the  amount  of  education  which  their  teachers  have  received 
as  those  which  do  report.  In  the  second  place,  the  less  well  paid 
and  less  well  trained  teachers  in  the  public  high  schools  are  found 
in  the  rural  high  schools  with  one  or  two  teachers.  In  one  sense 
it  is  fair  to  compare  these  schools  with  the  private  high  schools 
and  academies,  as  they  are  both  cooperating  in  secondary  educa- 
tion. In  another  sense  it  is  not  fair,  because  the  private  schools 
often  require  residence  away  from  home  at  a  distance.  Under  the 
same  conditions  the  pupils  of  public  high  schools  could  attend  a 
public  high  school  much  better  equipped  than  the  one-teacher  or 
two- teacher  schools  in  their  immediate  neighborhood.  That  is, 
to  make  the  comparison  by  the  general  census  perfectly  fair, 
there  should  be  private  high  schools  distributed  geographically 
in  just  the  same  fashion  as  the  public  high  schools. 

I  have,  therefore,  made  the  comparison  by  taking  public  and 
private  secondary  schools  where  both  exist  in  the  same  locality, 
asking,  that  is,  the  question,  "In  any  one  city,  will  the  pupil  who 
attends  the  local  public  secondary  school  be  taught  by  a  staff  as 
weU  paid  and  as  well  educated  as  the  pupil  attending  the  local 
private  secondary  school?"  Since  the  matter  is  not  one  of 
ver>'  great  importance  to  educational  welfare,  I  have  measured 


Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  United  States    131 

the  difference  in  only  19  cities.  The  fact  in  these  is,  with  almost 
entire  uniformity,  that  the  staff  of  the  public  school  is  better 
paid.  Whether  each  city  is  given  a  weight  proportional  to  its 
size  or  is  weighted  like  all  the  others,  the  general  result  is  found 
that  the  public  high  school  man  is  paid  at  least  1 5  per  cent  more 
than  the  private  high  school  man,  and  the  public  high  school 
woman  at  least  30  per  cent  more  than  the  private  high  school 
woman.  The  facts  appear  in  Table  38.  The  public  high  school 
teachers  in  these  cities  have  also  had  a  more  extended  education 
though,  in  view  of  the  influences  described  on  pages  11 7-1 19,  it 
is  not  possible  to  assign  an  exact  percentage. 

TABLE  38 

Relative  Freqtjencies  of  Different  Salaries  in  Public  and  Private  Second- 
ary Schools  in  the  Same  Localities.  Percentages  Estimated  from 
Nineteen  Cities 


Salaries 


Men 


Women 


Public 

Private 

PubUc 

Private 

Schools 

Schools 

Schools 

Schools 

0 

I 

I 

10 

4 

24 

26 

59 

34 

32 

49 

27 

31 

22 

21 

3 

31 

21 

3 

2 

Less  than  $500. 
$500  to  $999.  .  . 
$1,000  to  $1,499 
$1,500  to  $1,999 
$2,000  and  over. 


§  13-  The  Influence  of  the  Sex  Balance  of  the  Teaching 
Staff  upon  High  School  Enrollment  ^ 

It  always  is,  or  should  be,  interesting  to  put  speculations  about 
education  to  the  test  of  facts.  The  result  often  is,  or  should  be, 
a  warning  to  us  against  the  intellectual  crime  of  giving  mere 
opinions  where  indolence  is  our  only  excuse  for  faihng  to  verify 
them. 

In  the  present  article  I  propose  to  seek  light  on  the  very  com- 
mon opinion  that  the  ratio  of  boys  to  girls  in  high  schools,  and  in 
particular  in  the  later  grades  of  high  schools,  can  be  largely  in- 
creased by  increasing  the  percentage  of  men  teachers  in  these 
schools. 

The  first  question  of  fact  which  will  be  answered  is:  "Do  the 
high  schools  which,  while  roughly  alike  in  other  respects,  differ 
greatly  in  the  proportion  of  male  teachers,  show  corresponding 
differences  in  the  proportion  of  male  students?"  The  data 
used  will  be  the  statistics  of  pubHc  high  schools  in  the  1906  Re- 
port of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education.  To  get  groups 
roughly  aHke,  I  omit,  of  course,  schools  for  boys  only  or  for 
girls  only,  manual  training  high  schools,  even  though  a  few  girls 
may  be  enrolled,  and  also,  to  avoid  the  possible  admixture 
(through  error)  of  teachers  whose  work  is  really  in  the  elementary 
schools,  all  schools  reported  as  having  fewer  than  six  secondary 
teachers.  Further  I  keep  separate  the  schools  of  each  size, 
though  in  the  summaries  reported  in  the  tables  this  separation 
is  abandoned  to  save  space  and  add  to  clearness. 

I  shall  in  general  measure  the  proportion  of  boys  among  the 

'  This  section  is  quoted  with  some  abbreviation  of  tables,  from  an  article  with 
the  same  title  in  the  Educational  Review  of  Jan.,  '09  (Vol.  XXXVII,  No.  I),  by 
Edward  L.  Thorndike. 

132 


TABLE  39 
Sample  of  the  Data  and  Calculations  in  the  Case  of  the  Relation  of  the 
Proportion  of  Male  Teachers  to  the  Proportion  of  Male  Students 
IN  Public  High  Schools.    Twelve-Teacher  Schools 


Percentage 

which  the 

School 

Number 
of  Male 

Number 
of  Female 

Percentage 
of  Male 

Number 
of  Male 

Number 
of  Female 

Number  of 
Female  Stu- 
dents is  of 
the  Number 

Teachers 

Teachers 

Teachers 

Students 

Students 

of  Male 

Students 

1 

I 

II 

8-3 

128 

210 

164 

2 

2 

lO 

16.7 

167 

162 

97 

3 

3 

9 

25 

165 

171 

4 

3 

9 

III 

no 

. 

Sums 

=    276 

281 

102 

5 

4 

8 

33-3 

93 

132 

6 

4 

8 

137 

153 

7 

4 

8 

146 

179 

8 

4 

8 

121 

215 

9 

4 

8 

100 

145 

lO 

4 

8 

^33 

162 

II 

4 

8 

130 

238 

Sums 

=  860 

1224 

142 

12 

S 

7 

41.7 

125 

152 

13 

5 

7 

104 

137 

14 

5 

7 

119 

154 

IS 

5 

7 

145 

138 

i6 

5 

7 

124 

134 

17 

S 

7 

80 

98 

i8 

s 

7 

"3 

128 

19 

5 

7 

126 

187 

20 

5 

7 

109 

147 

21 

5 

7 

129 

243 

Sums 

=  1174 

1518 

129 

22 

6 

6 

SO 

123 

200 

23 

6 

6 

98 

116 

24 

6 

6 

100 

143 

25 

6 

6 

165 

176 

26 

6 

6 

96 

172 

27- 

6 

6 

"5 

118 

Sums 

=  697 

925 

^33 

28 

7 

5 

58.3 

147 

164 

29 

7 

5 

172 

215 

Suras 

=   319 

379 

119 

3° 

9 

3 

75 

172 

215 

25 

133 


134 


Educational  Adminislralion 


TABLE  40 

The  Relation  of  the  Sex-Balance  of  the  Staff  to  the  Sex-Balance  of  the 
Student  Enrollment  in  Public  High  Schools  of  from  6  to  16  Teachers 


v 

Ji 

jj 

jy 

^?"S2 

_o 

s  i  s;  » 

0  i  Si  "1 

■3 

"3 
E 

r-2  s 

— 

ChU,  0^ 

■^E  . 

"0  2 

°5 

"0 
"i2 

"0 
a  2 

11 

^1 

a 

^1 

ir^l 

S^ 
^5^ 

0  c-^** 

Ih 

3H 

il 

|l 

3t/)  J2<<^ 

fcf^ 

SH 

tuE-o 

"Z 

'z 

:z; 

Z 

Z 

A, 

u 

^ 

u 

0 

II 

125 

178 

142 

0 

158 

0-35 

143 

0 

8 

72 

133 

185 

0 

7 

"3 

159 

141 

0 

6 

271 

450 

166 

I 

12 

171 

213 

125 

8-17 

146 

I 

11 

128 

210 

164 

1 

lO 

I 

9 

100 

118 

118 

I 

8 

829 

1,355 

163 

I 

7 

1,158 

1,626 

140 

2 

14 

309 

519 

168 

2 

13 

177 

241 

136 

I 

6 

1,690 

2,403 

142 

2 

12 

399 

559 

140 

2 

II 

414 

755 

182 

I 

5 

2,741 

3,942 

144 

17-24 

145 

2 

10 

167 

162 

97 

2 

9 

963 

1,338 

139 

3 

13 

538 

843 

157 

2 

8 

1,046 

1,635 

156 

3 

12 

S16 

629 

122 

3 

II 

682 

967 

145 

2 

7 

1,633 

2,364 

145 

3 

10 

1,242 

1,756 

141 

2 

6 

1,968 

2,863 

145 

25-29 

143 -5 

3 

9 

276 

281 

102 

4 

12 

162 

291 

180 

4 

II 

638 

1,045 

164 

3 

8 

945 

1,489 

158 

2 

5 

2,870 

3,974 

138 

4 

10 

897 

1,155 

129 

3 

7 

2,129 

2,893 

136 

30-35 

140.5 

4 

9 

314 

351 

112 

S 

II 

209 

221 

106 

2 

4 

6,130 

8,735 

142 

3 

6 

1,564 

2,358 

151 

The  Influence  of  the  Sex-balance  of  the  Teaching  Staff    135 


TABLE  40 — Continued 


JJ 

_«; 

JU 

«-c>3  M 

_» 

ing      Per 
hich    Fe- 
idcnts  are 
Students 

Ji 

fc  i  K  « 

"a 

"3 
E 
u 

i 

°e 

*se 

03 

•Bai   _ 

«  e 

a*|ji! 

aE 

•§*2^ 

at-' 

^1 

^1 

^f-^§ 

g-S 

g^ 

0     '^'A 

il 

il 

il^li 

SH 

guSo 

'A 

a: 

;5 

iz; 

2: 

(2 

U 

(£ 

d 

4 

8 

860 

1,224 

142 

5 

10 

342 

396 

116 

S 

9 

396 

591 

149 

4 

7 

2,098 

2,780 

^11 

36-40 

142 

36-40 

142 

3 

5 

3,101 

4,656 

150 

6 

10 

1,094 

1,474 

135 

5 

8 

465 

61S 

132 

4 

6 

858 

1,269 

148 

6 

9 

177 

260 

147 

41-91 

140 

The  original  table  continues  up  to  schools  with  gi  per  cent  of  their  teachers  men, 
184,000  students  being  recorded.  For  the  schools  having  from  40  to  91  per  cent  of 
their  teachers  men,  the  female  students  stand  to  the  males  in  the  ratio  of  140  to  100. 

students  indirectly  by  the  percentage  which  the  girls  enrolled 
are  of  the  boys,  as  this  saves  much  computation. 

Table  39  shows  the  nature  of  the  data  used  and  the  calculations 
made  by  one  sample. 

Table  40  summarizes  the  facts  from  schools  with  from  six  to 
sixteen  teachers,  inclusive. 

Table  40  shows  that  there  is  only  a  very,  very  slight  direct 
relation  between  the  proportion  of  male  teachers  and  the  propor- 
tion of  male  students.  With  the  184,000  students  recorded,  the 
percentage  of  boys  is  less  than  4  per  cent  more  amongst  the 
84,607  in  schools  with  from  40  per  cent  to  91  per  cent  of  men 
teachers  than  amongst  the  81,527  in  schools  with  from  o  per  cent 
to  35  per  cent.  The  very  few  schools  with  no  men  teachers  at  all 
and  those  with  over  half  of  the  staff  men  show  decided  differences, 
but  the  numbers  are  too  small  to  be  used  as  reliable  evidence. 
Schools  with  from  30  to  50  per  cent  of  men  teachers  show  no 


136  Educational  Administration 

change  in  the  percentage  of  boys.  The  general  drift  of  the  relation 
is  such  as  may  be  expressed  as  follows : — The  central  tendency  is 
to  have  3  out  of  8  teachers  men  and  to  have  142  girls  for  every 
100  boys  enrolled.  For  33  1-3  per  cent  increase  in  the  proportion 
of  male  teachers,  one  finds  an  increase  of  less  than  i  per  cent  in 
the  proportion  of  male  studenls;  for  66  2-3  per  cent  increase  in 
the  former  proportion,  one  finds  an  increase  of  2  per  cent  in  the 
latter;  and  for  an  increase  of  100  per  cent  in  the  former,  an  in- 
crease of  4  or  5  per  cent  in  the  latter.  Where  the  former  propor- 
tion is  halved  the  proportion  of  male  students  drops  only  about 
I  per  cent  and  where  it  is  reduced  to  a  third,  the  drop  in  the 
latter  is  less  than  2  per  cent. 

I  have  also  computed  the  facts  in  the  case  of  the  42  schools  of 
13  or  more  teachers  (in  1906)  having  a  percentage  of  male  teachers 
of  24  or  under  and  the  41  such  schools  having  a  percentage  of 
male  teachers  of  47  or  over.  Although  on  the  average  the  latter 
group  have  two  and  a  half  times  as  high  a  percentage  of  male 
teachers,  they  have  a  percentage  of  male  students  hardly  any 
higher  and  a. percentage  of  male  graduates  which  is  decidedly 
lower  than  is  found  in  the  schools  with  few  men  teachers.  The 
facts  are: 

Schools  with  Schools  with 

from    II    to    24  from    47    to    6% 

Per  Cent  of  Male  Per  Cent  of  Male 

Teachers  Teachers 

Number  of  male  students 9,ii7  9,210 

Number  of  female  students 12,687  12,667 

Number  of  male  graduates 986  746 

Number  of  female  graduates 1,480  i,444 

Per  cent  of  male  students 42 —  42+ 

Per  cent  of  male  graduates 40  34 

Evidently  the  influence  of  the  proportion  of  male  teachers 
upon  the  proportion  of  male  students,  even  when  combined  with 
whatever  unreasoning  tendency  there  is  for  school  boards  to  pro- 
vide a  larger  share  of  men  teachers  when  the  enrollment  consists 
largely  of  boys  and  with  the  tendency  of  certain  communities  to 


TJte  Influence  of  the  Sex-balance  of  tlie  Teaching  Staff   137 

look  with  disfavor  on  the  feminization  of  both  the  teaching  pro- 
fession and  the  school  population,  is  very  slight. 

Its  influence  upon  the  proportion  of  each  sex  remaining  through 
the  high  school  might  still,  however,  be  demonstrable.  The  fact 
here  could  be  best  ascertained  by  a  calculation  of  the  correlation 
between  the  percentage  of  male  teachers  and  a  rather  complex 

B4 
ratio,  namely  =  in  which  B4  equals  the  enrollment  of  boys  in 

the  fourth  year  of  high  school,  Bi  the  enrollment  of  boys  in  the 
first  year  of  high  school,  G4  the  enrollment  of  girls  in  the  fourth 
year  of  high  school,  Gi  the  enrollment  of  girls  in  the  first  year  of 
high  school.  The  calculation  of  this  ratio  for  each  school  or  group 
of  schools  with  the  same  percentage  of  male  teachers  would, 
however,  be  a  very  laborious  procedure  and  could  at  the  best  be 
done  in  the  case  of  only  the  small  proportion  of  schools  which 
report  enrollment  by  grades  in  the  1907  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Educatipn.  I  have,  therefore,  taken  a  somewhat  less 
significant  but  more  easily  and  more  widely  available  measure, 
namely  the  ratio  which  the  male  graduates  are  of  the  total  gradu- 
ates, using  the  data  of  the  1906  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education. 

I  shall  then  answer  this  second  question  of  fact:  "Do  the  high 
schools  which  differ  greatly  in  the  proportion  of  male  teachers 
show  corresponding  differences  in  the  proportion  of  male  gradu- 
ates?" 

Table  41  summarizes  the  facts  concerning  this  relationship. 
Of  the  9,782  graduates  in  schools  with  from  o  to  33  1-3  per  cent 
of  their  teachers  men  nearly  37  per  cent  are  boys,  and  of  the 
9,421  graduates  in  schools  with  from  35.7  to  91  per  cent  of  their 
teachers  men  almost  exactly  37  per  cent  are  boys.    The  differ- 


138  Educational  Administration 

ence  is  one-third  of  one  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  male  teachers 
thus  makes  even  less  difference  in  the  proportion  of  male  gradu- 
ates than  in  the  proportion  of  male  students  as  a  whole.  It  ap- 
pears, then,  that  the  influence  which  made  the  slight  correlation 
between  the  sex  ratio  of  the  staff  and  that  of  the  student  body 
was  not  in  the  main  the  attractiveness  of  men  teachers  to  boys. 
For,  in  so  far  as  it  was  that,  the  relation  should  be  closer  for 
graduates  upon  whom  the  supposed  attractive  force  would  have 
acted  from  one-half  to  three  and  a  half  years  longer. 

These  facts  are  adequate  to  prove  that  in  the  medium  sized 
public  high  schools  of  the  country  the  proportion  of  boys  who  go 
to  or  stay  through  high  school  is  almost  or  wholly  irrespective  of 
the  percentage  of  men  on  the  staff  of  the  school.  But  since  there 
is  an  independent  body  of  evidence  available  which  is  interesting 
from  other  points  of  view  as  well  as  our  present  one,  I  shall  pre- 
sent it  also.  This  evidence  is  the  change  for  each  school  in  the 
percentage  of  male  teachers  in  recent  years  taken  in  connection 
with  the  change  for  each  school  (i)  in  the  percentage  of  male 
students  and  (2)  in  the  percentage  of  male  graduates.  We  may, 
that  is,  get  the  answer  to  the  question:  *'To  what  extent  have  the 
schools  which  have  been  most  feminized  in  their  staffs  been  also 
most  feminized  in  their  student  body  and  in  their  body  of  gradu- 
ates?" I  shall,  in  answering  it,  use  first  the  reports  of  1896  and 
1906  for  the  co-educational  public  high  schools  (excluding  even- 
ing high  schools)  in  cities  where  there  is  one  general  high  school 
of  12  or  more  teachers  (in  1906). 


The  Injltience  of  the  Sex-balance  of  the  Teaching  Staf   139 


TABLE  41 

The  Relation  of  the  Sex-balance  of  the  Staff  to  the  Sex-b\lance  of  the 
Graduates  (for  1906)  in  Public  High  Schools  of  from  6  to  lO  Teachers  ' 


_u 

u 

^ 

•2 

■^■g'ss 

_4; 

fe  i  8-i 

_»j 

t  vS-c 

e 

Pj 

S 

il  1 

si 

"0 

bc.o  2  u 

"0 

g.a  2-ii 

2 

°2 

=  8 

o| 

•32|0 

i22 

|to| 

22 

ll^s 

^1 

^1 

1-1 

b  3 

J3  rt      "s  " 

s-g 

|3  „-o  i 

gU  E  rt  3 

^1 

N^°i 

Ih 

3H 

3O 

io 

ioi'si 

-H 

ti= 

C  B  rt  J?  T 
SU  E  a  3 

S5 

55 

a: 

^ 

z 

(£ 

u 

0, 

U 

0 

II 

7 

15 

214 

0 

212 

0-33 -3 

173— 

0 

8 

6 

II 

183 

0 

7 

7 

9 

129 

0 

6 

28 

67 

239 

I 

12 

15 

19 

127 

8-17 

169 

I 

II 

10 

36 

360 

I 

10 

I 

9 

10 

15 

150 

I 

8 

56 

114 

204 

I 

7 

94 

181 

193 

2 

14 

41 

52 

127 

2 

13 

23 

35 

152 

I 

6 

185 

282 

152 

2 

12 

44 

75 

171 

2 

II 

40 

80 

200 

I 

5 

332 

573 

173 

17-24 

iSo 

2 

10 

12 

13 

108 

2 

9 

87 

159 

183 

3 

13 

52 

96 

185 

2 

8 

97 

212 

208 

3 

12 

45 

79 

176 

3 

II 

87 

139 

160 

2 

7 

156 

282 

181 

3 

10 

180 

243 

13s 

23-29 

174 

2 

6 

169 

351 

208 

3 

9 

49 

46 

94 

4 

12 

18 

27 

150 

4 

II 

61 

123 

202 

3 

8 

52 

lOI 

194 

1  The  schools  reported  in  Table  41  are  not  identical  with  those  reported  in 
Table  40,  since  (i)  the  number  of  graduates  is  less  often  recorded  in  the  Report  of 
the  U.  S.  Comm.  of  Education,  and  (2)  the  labor  of  calculation  was  somewhat 
lightened  by  omitting  at  random  a  fourth  of  the  schools  of  from  six  to  eleven 
teachers. 


I40 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  41 — Continued 


u 

a> 

0) 

V 

u-a  »*j  en 

0 

I-     •     cfti 

a 

fc-    1    trt    1 

--:  oj  0  4* 

a  aj  oj'O 

cj  c;  <UT3 

"0  „ 

C3 

"0  2 

t-  3 

e 

u.   3 

1:9    1 

t,  3<<        0 

0 

M  0   cS  (U 

0       ^ 

^% 

^■s 

^^ 

O-O        u  0 

^^. 

S-^^  °S 

3t^ 

Ih 

io 

Io 

ic!;i^§ 

feo  E  rt  3 

Z 

^ 

S5 

^ 

z 

£ 

u 

P< 

^ 

2 

5 

277 

521 

188 

4 

10 

95 

153 

161 

3 

7 

202 

350 

173 

30-35 

166 

4 

9 

21 

58 

276 

5 

II 

27 

35 

130 

2 

4 

704 

1,168 

166 

3 

6 

169 

292 

173 

4 

8 

103 

138 

134 

S 

10 

27 

44 

116 

S 

9 

43 

.     69 

161 

4 

7 

22s 

427 

190 

36-40 

180 

3 

5 

334 

681 

204 

6 

10 

147 

189 

129 

5 

8 

60 

103 

172 

4 

6 

95 

153 

161 

6 

9 

15 

23 

163 

35-7-91 

171  + 

The  original  table  continues  up  to  schools  with  91  per  cent  of  their  teachers 
men.  The  per  cents  of  female  graduates  corresponding  to  per  cents  of  male  teachers, 
41-49,  St,  53-59,  and  60-91,  are  respectively  176,  162,  161  and  171. 

The  quantities  whose  relationships  are  to  be  measured  are 
three  ratios  for  each  school: 

I.  The  ratio  of  the  change  in  the  number  of  men  teachers  to  the 
change  in  the  number  of  women  teachers,  the  changes  being 
measured  by  percentile  increments. 

II.  The  ratio  of  the  change  in  the  number  of  male  students  to 
the  change  in  the  number  of  female  students,  the  changes  being 
measured  by  percentile  increments. 

III.  The  ratio  of  the  change  in  the  number  of  male  graduates 
to  the  change  in  the  number  of  female  graduates,  the  changes 
being  measured  by  percentile  increments. 


The  Infliience  of  the  Sex-balance  of  the  Teaching  Stajf  141 

These  somewhat  complex  verbal  descriptions  represent,  of 
course,  the  following  arithmetical  expressions: 

I.  M.  T.  '06.  II.   M.  S.  '06.  III. 

M.  T.  '96.  M.  S.  '96. 


F.  T.  '06.  F.  S.  '06. 


M. 

G. 

'06. 

M. 

G. 

'96. 

F. 

G. 

'06. 

F.  T.  '96.  F.  S.  '96.  F.  G.  '96. 

In  which  M.  T.,  M.  S.,  and  M.  G.  stand  for  Male  Teachers,  Male  Students,  and 
Male  Graduates  respectively,  and  F.  T.,  F.  S.,  and  F.  G.  stand  for  Female  Teachers, 
Female  Students,  and  Female  Graduates. 

The  204  schools  examined  show  an  enormous  range  of  difference 
in  the  feminization  of  the  staffs — from  a  case  where  8  men  and  2 
women  have  been  replaced  by  7  men  and  10  women  (that  is,  a 
ratio  of  .11)  to  a  case  where  i  man  and  15  women  have  been 
replaced  by  15  men  and  16  women  (that  is,  a  ratio  of  14.10). 
The  central  tendency  is  to  a  change  of  88  per  cent  as  much  in 
men  as  in  women. 

The  range  of  difference  in  the  feminization^  of  the  student 
body  is  of  course  less,  but  is  still  large,  roughly  from  a  ratio  of 
.60  to  one  of  2.00. 

The  exact  relation  between  the  changes  in  staff  and  the  changes 
in  the  student  body  is  not  clear  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  data 
include  (for  1906)  over  ioo,cxx)  students.  The  facts  are  summar- 
ized in  Table  42.  In  general  it  is  clear  from  them  that  the  addi- 
tion of  men  teachers  has  made  very  little  difference,  and  very 
likely  none  at  all,  in  the  proportion  of  male  students.  The  same, 
but  to  a  less  degree,  is  true  in  the  case  of  the  relation  between 
changes  in  the  sex-balance  of  the  staff  and  changes  in  the  sex- 
balance  of  the  graduates.    The  facts  are  summarized  in  Table  43. 

^  In  these  large  schools  the  boys  increased  somewhat  more  than  did  the  girls  dun 
ing  the  ten  years  in  question.  The  country  over,  the  girls  increased  about  one  per 
cent  more. 


142 


Educational  Administration 


The  work  of  calculation  of  these  relationships  is  so  excessively 
tedious,  especially  Tor  small  schools,  that  I  have  not  attempted 
to  measure  the  fact  in  enough  more  schools  to  make  the  deter- 
minations final  and  precise  within,  say,  i  per  cent.  But  I  have 
supplemented  them  by  similar  calculations  for  the  schools  which 
had  lo  or  II  teachers  in  1906,  for  50  schools  (taken  at  random) 
which  had  6  teachers  in  1896,  and  for  33  schools  in  Massa- 
chusetts which  had  4,  5,  or  6  teachers  in  1896.  The  facts  in 
these  cases  are  summarized  in  Table  44. 

TABLE  42 


Relation  of  Changes  in  the  Sex  Balance  of  the  Staffs  of  Public  High 
Schools  to  Changes  in  the  Sex  Balance  of  the  Student  Body.  In 
204  Large  High  Schools. 


Change  in  Sex  Balance  of 

Change 

in  Sex  Balance  of 

the  TeachinR  Staff: 

the  Student  Body: 

Number  of  Students,  in 

M.  T.  '06  .   F.  T.  '06 

M.  S. 

'06    ,   F.  S.  '06 

1906,  Involved  in  the 

M.  T.  '96  '   F.  T.  'g6 

M.S. 

'96    '   F.  S.  '96 

Computation 

0-    .29 

I. 16 

3,209 

•30- 

49 

1.04 

4,985     » 

•50- 

69 

1.07 

21,393 

.70- 

89 

•975 

21,272 

.90-1 

09 

1. 10 

18,895 

I . lO-I 

29 

1. 18 

11,566 

I. 30-1 

49 

1 .04 

7,222 

1.50-1 

69 

I. IIS 

6,8is 

I. 70-1 

99 

1. 10 

5,119 

2 .  00  and  over 

1.23 

10,653 

Under  70 

1.08 

29,587 

1.30  and  over 

1. 115 

29,799 

0-  .70 

1. 08 

.70-1.29 

1.06 

I. 30-1. 99 

1.08 

2 .  00  and  over 

1.23 

The  Injiuence  of  the  Sex-balance  of  the  Teaching  Stajff  143 

TABLE  43 

The  Relation  of  Ch.anges  in  the  Sex  Balance  of  the  Staffs  of  Public 
High  Schools  to  Change.s  in  the  Sex  Balance  of  Their  Graduates. 
In  204  Large  High  Schools. 


Change  in  Sex  balance  of 

Change 

in  Sex  Balance  of 

the  TeachinK  Staff: 

the 

Graduates: 

Number  of  Graduates,  in 

M.  T.  '06  .   F.  T.  '06 

M 

('.. 

'06  .   F.  G.  '06 

1906,  Involved  in  the 

M.  T.  '96  •  F.  T.  '96 

M 

G. 

'96  •  F.  G.  '96 

Comparison 

0-   .29 

1.07 

453 

•30-   -49 

.89 

609 

•SO-   .69 

.96 

2,321 

.70-   .89 

1. 00 

2483 

.90-1.09 

1. 18 

1,584 

I . lo-i . 29 

1. 41 

1,193 

I. 30-1. 49 

1-33 

745 

I. 50-1. 69 

1.28 

740 

I. 70-1. 99 

1-53 

622 

2 .  00  and  over 

•92s 

976 

Under  .70 

.96 

3,383 

1.30  and  over 

1.22 

3,083 

0-  .70 

.96 

. 70-1 . 29 

1  135 

I  30-1.99 

1.36 

2 .  00  and  over 

925 

TABLE  44 

The  Rel.ation  of  Changes  in  the  Sex  Balance  of  the  Staff  to  Changes  in 
THE  Sex  Balance  of  the  Student  Body  and  Gradu.ates.  Summary 
OF  Additional  Data. 


M.  T.  '06  ,  F.  T.  '06 
M.  T.  '96'^F.  T.  '96 

M.S. 

'06  .  F.  S. 

'06 
'96 

M.  G.  '06  ^  F.  G.  '06 

M.S. 

'96  "!■  F.  S. 

M.  G.  '96  •  F.  G.  '96 

Schools  of   10  and   11 
teachers  in  '06. 

i         0-    .95 
\     .96-00 

•97 
1. 10 

1 .02 
I. 215 

Schools   of   6   teachers 
in  '96. 

[         0-    .70 
I     .70-   .99 
1  i.oo-i .49 
I  I  •  50-00 

.91 

I   13 

1.085 

1.08 

•93 

.81 

I  055 

1 .12 

Massachusetts   schools 
of  4,  5  or  6  teachers 
in  '96. 

f        0-   .99 
<  i.oo-oo 

I  05 
I  OS 

•85 
•77 

.    * 

144  Educational  Administration 

Taking  all  these  facts  together,  it  seems  safe  to  say  that  in 
these  larger  schools  changes  of  staff  expressed  by  the  ratios  .50 
and  2.00  (for  instance,  a  change  from  5  men  and  5  women  to 
5  men  and  10  women  or  from  5  men  and  5  women  to  10  men  and 
5  women)  are  not  accompanied  by  corresponding  changes  in  the 
student  body  of  much  more  than  5  minus  or  plus  (for  instance, 
from  100  boys  and  100  girls  to  100  boys  and  105  girls  and  to  105 
boys  and  100  girls. 

In  the  case  of  the  graduates  the  figures  for  similar  changes  in 
staff  would  be  perhaps  7  plus  or  minus. 

The  possible  influence  of  men  teachers  in  attracting  boys  and 
holding  them  through  the  high  school  course,  the  possible  influence 
of  a  habit  of  letting  the  sex  balance  of  a  school  count  as  a  reason 
for  choosing  a  new  teacher  from  one  sex  rather  than  the  other, 
the  influence  of  the  addition  of  studies  specialized  for  the  sexes 
(such  as  manual  training  and  domestic  science)  which,  so  far, 
are  taught  almost  exclusively  hy  the  same  sex  that  they  are  taught 
to,  and  other  similar  influences,  have  not  all  together  been  strong 
enough  to  account  for  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  the  very 
great  changes  in  the  sex  balance  of  these  high  schools.  The 
influence  first  named  must  certainly  have  been  very  slight,  for 
the  one  last  named  is  real  and  must  have  been  the  cause  of  part 
of  the  slight  correlation  found. 

The  measurements  made  are  perhaps  even  more  interesting 
from  other  points  of  view  than  that  of  the  attempt  to  verify 
or  refute  the  opinion  that  replacing  women  teachers  by  men 
would  help  largely  to  turn  the  sex  balance  in  our  secondary 
schools. 

As  the  author  has  in  several  instances  shown,  the  variability 
of  out-schools,  cities,  states,  and  institutions  in  respect  to  different 
features  of  educational  work  is  very  instructive.  It  is  in  the 
present  case.  Taking  such  high  schools  as  are  in  each  case  the 
only  public  secondary  schools  in  the  city  or  town  and  should  do, 


The  Influence  of  the  Sex-balance  of  the  Teaching  Stajff  145 

therefore,  the  general  work  of  secondary  education  for  the  com- 
munity, we  find  that  for  medium  sized  and  large  schools  the 
percentage  of  male  teachers  varies  from  o  to  75  and  over.  Are 
the  extremes  justifiable,  each  really  adapted  to  the  special  needs 
of  that  community,  or  are  they  due  to  ignorance  and  caprice? 
We  find  that  some  schools  have  only  half  as  high  a  percentage 
of  boys  as  do  others.  Is  this  because  the  boys  in  these  communi- 
ties need  education  less,  or  because  poverty  debars  boys  from 
school  so  much  more  than  girls,  or  because  of  an  unwise  admin- 
istration of  the  school?  If  poverty  does  debar  boys  in  excess, 
ought  it  to?  We  find  that  from  '96  to  '06  some  cities  have  vastly 
increased  the  proportion  of  women  on  their  high  school  staffs  while 
others  have  vastly  increased  the  proportion  of  men.  Were  both 
right  because  of  local  needs?  Which  group  was  right?  Were 
perhaps  both  groups  wrong? 

We  are  not,  at  present,  able  to  judge  the  worth  of  the  feminiza- 
tion of  secondary  and  higher  education  from  its  results.  There 
is  an  intellectual  difficulty  in  the  absence  of  facts  and  an  emo- 
tional difficulty  in  the  presence  of  prejudices.  But  we  could  in 
part  judge  it  by  its  relations — by  what  it  goes  with.  And  since 
a  student  of  education  who  has  got  the  ability  to  measure  variable 
relationships  commonly  has  had  sufficient  scientific  experience  to 
elevate  him  above  conventional  prejudices,  this  method  might  well 
be  more  impartially  used  than  the  direct  method.  The  following 
questions  can  all  be  answered  by  energy  and  care:  How  do  the 
most  feminized  and  the  most  rapidly  being  feminized  schools 
stand,  in  comparison  with  their  opposites  (in  both  present  con- 
dition and  recent  progress),  with  respect  to  cost  per  pupil,  number 
of  teachers  per  hundred  pupils,  per  cent  of  population  enrolled, 
course  of  study,  laboratory,  library,  and  technical  equipment, 
and  other  symptoms  of  efficiency?  How  do  the  communities  in 
which  they  are  stand  (in  both  present  condition  and  recent  prog- 
ress) with  respect  to  public  health  protection,  street  lighting, 


146  Educational  Administration 

infant  mortality,  parks  and  libraries,  provision  of  kindergartens 
and  evening  schools,  crime,  and  the  like? 

Finally  I  may  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  comparative 
studies  of  the  changes  in  the  school  work  of  individual  cities  dur- 
ing the  past  ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  years  are  likely  to  be  even  more 
instructive  than  the  comparisons  of  present  status  to  which  we 
have  been  accustomed  to  confine  our  attention.  The  latter  por- 
tion of  the  present  article  is,  I  believe,  the  first  attempt  to  use  on 
a  large  scale  the  statistics  of  educational  changes  measured  sepa- 
rately for  each  city  or  other  educational  unit. 

Only  those  schools  were  taken  which  were  co-educational,  and 
which  represented  the  entire  system  of  public  secondary  educa- 
tion in  the  community.  There  were  204  in  all,  so  that  the  com- 
parison concerns  roughly  the  top  and  bottom  fifths  with  respect 
to  the  sex  balance  of  the  staff.  The  same  method  is  available 
for  far  more  important  problems  than  that  of  the  sex  balance  in 
schools.  It  should  be  applied  to  all  administrative  problems.  An 
apparent  lack  of  change  in  the  country  as  a  whole  may  be  the 
result  of  enormous,  but  opposite,  changes  in  different  localities 
or  institutions;  and,  of  course,  apparent  general  change  in  one 
direction  may  conceal  similar  enormous  individual  differences. 
By  individualizing  the  measurements  of  change  for  different 
features  of  educational  practice  and  correlating  them,  we  may 
learn  vastly  more  of  their  nature,  and,  under  certain  conditions, 
of  their  value. 


PART  III 

STUDIES  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND 
COURSES  OF  STUDY 


§  14-  The  Elementary  School  Curriculum 

The  ends  which  we  seek  in  education  are  realized  by  means  of 
the  curriculum,  the  methods  of  instruction  and  the  organization 
and  management  of  our  schools.  When  schools  were  concerned 
primarily  with  the  three  R's,  education  was  largely  a  matter  of 
experience  received  outside  of  the  schoolroom.  It  was  inevitable  , 
that  with  the  changed  social  conditions,  the  content  of  the  school 
curriculum  should  be  greatly  increased.  That  th3  curriculum 
is  the  result  of  a  demand  originating  outside  of  the  teaching 
profession  is  shown  clearly  in  Professor  W.  A.  Jessup's  "Social 
Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision."  A  part  of  his  concluding 
statement  follows: 

"  We  have  seen  that  the  pressure  which  brought  about  the  in- 
troduction of  music  was  generated  by  the  organization  of  public 
sentiment  by  people  outside  the  school.  The  rapid  introduction 
of  drawing  was  traced  to  the  influence  of  the  public  opinion  di- 
rected by  the  manufacturers  of  Massachusetts  and  elsewhere. 
Economic  and  humanitarian  forces  united  in  consciously  creating 
a  pressure  which  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  manual  training 
and  domestic  science.  The  sudden  rise  in  interest  in  physical 
education  in  the  early  nineties  was  traced  to  the  organized  ac- 
tivities of  the  German  Turners,  the  Christian  Associations  and 
private  munificence.  While  penmanship  had  a  special  value 
within  the  schoolroom,  it  did  not  take  its  place  as  a  sine  qua  non 
until  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  from  outside  agitation. 

"All  of  this  is  a  striking  commentary  on  the  character  of  the 
school  as  a  public  institution  and  on  its  responsiveness  to  public 
opinion  and  certainly  points  clearly  to  the  conclusion  that  these 
modifications  in  the  curriculum  have  largely  come  from  without 

149 


150  Educational  Administration 

rather  than  from  within  the  school  group.  The  administrator 
who  aspires  to  genuine  leadership  in  school  affairs  surely  cannot 
afford  to  neglect  the  conscious  organization  of  public  sentiment 
as  one  of  his  most  powerful  means  of  attainment  of  ends.  The 
school  is  being  constantly  subjected  to  outside  pressure  and  the 
superintendent  must  either  yield  to  these  forces  or  direct  them. 
It  is  true  that  the  factor  of  imitation  has  been  operative  in  the 
later  introduction  so  that  in  many  cases  the  desire  to  be  'abreast 
of  the  times '  has  brought  about  the  introduction  of  new  subject 
matter  irrespective  of  the  fact  that  there  was  neither  a  public 
demand  for  this  nor  a  clear  conception  of  the  purpose  involved. 
However,  since  this  refers  to  the  later  development,  it  does  not 
affect  the  conclusions  above.  .  .  . 

"  We  have  seen  the  organized  efforts  of  the  Boston  Academy  of 
Music;  the  petition  of  the  Massachusetts  manufacturers,  urging 
legislation  relative  to  drawing,  the  New  York  Industrial  Educa- 
tion Association  spreading  the  propaganda  for  manual  training 
and  domestic  science;  the  German  Turners  and  others  putting 
forth  the  claims  for  physical  education.  We  have  likewise  noted 
that  in  almost  every  instance  the  expense  of  the  initial  experiment 
was  borne  by  these  organizations.  After  a  further  preparation  of 
the  public  mind  and  proving  the  possibility  of  the  venture,  the 
second  step  was  to  effect  joint  control  between  the  advocates 
of  the  new  movement  and  the  regular  school  authorities,  followed 
by  the  complete  adoption  at  public  expense.  In  view  of  the  facts 
presented  in  this  study  it  would  seem  quite  possible  to  introduce 
almost  anything  into  the  schools  provided  a  few  influential  people 
became  sufficiently  interested  to  furnish  the  necessary  funds  for 
the  development  of  public  sentiment.  This  plan  has  met  with 
uniform  success  in  the  past  irrespective  of  the  subject  involved  or 
the  size  of  the  city." 

We  are  to-day  adding  industrial  training  to  our  curriculum 
beyond  the  sixth  year  and  again  the  demand  has  come  largely 


The  Elementary  School  Curriculum  151 

from  those  who  employ  skilled  labor.  The  current  agitation  for 
religious  and  moral  training  is  due  primarily  to  the  fact  that  the 
church  and  the  home  are  doing  less  for  children  in  this  field  and 
that  parents  and  religious  leaders  are  hoping  that  the  school  will 
be  able  to  make  good  this  deficiency. 

Along  with  the  increase  in  the  content  of  the  curriculum  has 
come  the  cry  of  "fads  and  frills"  from  those  who  see  little  signif- 
icance in  those  aspects  of  school  work  which  are  not  directly 
related  to  making  a  living.  A  more  significant  criticism,  current 
among  teachers  and  other  careful  students  of  education,  declares 
that  the  curriculum  is  overcrowded.  More  time  is  needed  for 
the  more  comprehensive  training  which  the  school  attempts  to 
give  to-day.  The  curriculum  is  overcrowded  largely  because  we 
are  attempting  to  give  in  school  in  a  five  hour  day  the  training 
which  once  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  child's  waking  hours. 
The  longer  school  day  has  already  been  introduced  in  many 
industrial  schools  which  have  the  eight  hour  day.  We  may  ex- 
pect that  a  school  which  attempts  to  teach  the  three  R's,  geog- 
raphy, history,  nature  study,  music,  drawing,  industrial  and 
household  arts  and  which  plans  at  the  same  time  to  be  respon- 
sible for  the  recreation  of  children  will  demand  more  than  five 
hours  a  day. 

The  problem  of  the  curriculum  is  not  simply.  What  shall  be 
included  in  the  curriculum?  but  also,  When  shall  each  subject  be 
begun  and  what  part  of  the  subject  shall  be  assigned  to  each  of 
the  grades  in  which  it  is  found?  and,  How  much  time  shall  be 
devoted  to  each  subject  in  each  grade?  Dr.  Bruce  R.  Payne's 
['05]  careful  investigation  of  "Elementary  School  Curricula^" 
contains  interesting  data,  a  part  of  which  is  presented  in  the 
tables  taken  from  his  book  presented  below.  ^ 

*  Payne,  B.  R.,  "Public  Elementary  School  Curricula"  published  by  Silver, 
Burdett  and  Company. 


152 


Edticational  Administration 


The  Percentage  of  Total  Timi 


TABLE  4S  - 

Given  to  Each  Study  in  the  Public  Elementary  Schools  of 
Ten  American  Cities 


ti 

o 

,  a 

s 

s? 

i,"^ 

IJ 

E»r 

o 

15 

■^■^ 

CQ 

u 

u 

u 

U5 


J^ 


41  — 

2: 


1  Ojiening  Exercises |   2 .  g 

2  Reading  and  Literature i23-3 

3  Writing i 

4  Spelling 2.4 

5  Grammar 

6  Language 

7  Composition '17.7 

8  Arithmetic 16.2 

9  Geography S .  S ! 

10  History  | 

11  Civil  Government 3.6 

13  Elementary  Science  j 

14  Nature  Study 4.5 

15  Physiologj' 

16  Physical  Training 6 

17  Drawing 7.1 

18  Music '  4.3 

19  Manual  Training  ■• !  s-8 


1.6 
18.8 
4.8 


II. 9 
18.6 
6.1 

4-7 
6.2 

3-3 
4.8 
4-9 
l-S 


■71    5-1 
6,  16.9 

4:    41 
,6i    6.3 


18.1 
18,6 
10.7 


4-2 
4-3 
4-4 


3-7 
30 
6.8 


10.3 
IQ.5 
6.7 

3.6 


6.4 
3-9 


I4-S 
9.6 
10.7 


iS-i 
7.5 


ii-s; 
10.6; 


1.9 
23.9' 


12.5, 

17. 2^ 
9.8: 


s-s 
2.9 


17. 6j 30.9 
18.6  12 
8.9     4-3 


6.6     4 


AS 
1-7 
3.6 
4-1, 
4-3 


20.2 
S.I 
7.2 


13.7 
iS-3 
6.9 


6.6 


S-6;    3-9 


9.6 
4.6 

5-41 


41 

S 

5-3 

4 


31 
20.7 
4-7' 
4-7 


14.4 
17-3 
7.2 

4.8 

3-4 
.7 
4-7 
6.4 
S-l 


'  Included  with  language. 
-  Included  with  reading. 
3  Included  with  nature  study. 
*  Includes  cooking  and  sewing. 


TABLE  46 

The  A\'erage  Time  in  Minutes  ppg  W^gy  Given  to  Each  Subject  in  Each  Grade  in  Ten 
'  American  Cities 


Grade 


Total  Assignments 11 74 


130 
161 


I  Opening  Exercises 43 

3  Reading  and  Literature 443 

3  Writing 

4  Spelling 

5  Grammar 

6  Language  and 

7  Composition 

8  Arithmetic.  . 

9  Geography 

10  History  and 

1 1  Civil  Government 

13  Elementary  Science  and 

14  Nature  Study 35 

15  Physiology -r-rr-. »  7 

16  Physical  Training 52 

17  Drawing 73 

18  Music 67 

19  Manual  Training 16 


II    III 


43 

404 

78 

90 


146 
195 


43 

367 

91 

81 


144 

232 

Si 


128s 


rv 


40 

373 

79 

73 


IS8 
239 
156 

17 

46 
8 
49 
82 
68 
33 


40 
232 
62 
67 


176 
241 
164 


VI 


40 

160 

62 
62 


224 

249 
150 


1404  1327 


vn    VIII 


40 

142 

28 

44 


2S4 
242 
127 


40 
129 


256 
231 


37 

77 
64 

.SO 


Tlie  Elementary  School  Curricidum 


153 


The  Avekage  Percentage  of  Recitation  Time  Given  to  Each  Subject  in  Each  Grade  in  Ten 

American  Cities 


1  Opening  Exercises 

a  Reading  and  Literature. 

3  Writing 

4  Spelling 

5  Grammar 

6  Language  and 

7  Composition 

8  Arithmetic 

9  Geography 

10  History,  etc 

13  Elementary  Science,  etc. 

15  Physiology 

16  Physical  Training 

If  Drawing 

18  Music ._ 

19  Manual  Training 


3.6 

3-4 

3.4 

3-5 

2.9 

2.9 

2.9 

37.3 

31.8 

28.7 

20.6 

17 

12.2 

10.4 

6.7 

b.i 

7.1 

5-9 

4-5 

4.5 

2 

3-9 

7.1 

0.3 

S-5 

4.9 

4-6 

3-2 

10.9 

10. 1 

10. 1 

10. 1 

10.2 

16. s 

18.6 

13.6 

15-4 

18.2 

18 

17.6 

18.3 

17.7 

•  9 

i.S 

4-1 

II. 8 

12 

II. I 

9-3 

•4 

•  4 

•  4 

1.2 

3 

S-2 

II  .1 

2.9 
■5 

2.8 

.6 

2.6 

.6 

3  4 
.6 

3-7 
•9 

3.2 

•9 

4.2 
.6 

4-3 
6.3 

3-9 
6.9 

3-9 
6.8 

3.7 
6.1 

3 
6.2 

2.7 
6.7 

2-7 

S-7 

50 

5.6 

5-3 

S.I 

4-9 

4.9 

4.6 

1.3 

1-4 

1-4 

2-5 

2.1 

2.2 

3-6 

2.9 

9  5 
1.6 

2.4 


18.8 
17 
59 

12 
3.6 
.6 
2.7 
5.6 
4.7 
8.6 


154 


Educational  Administration 


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The  Elementary  School  Curriculum 


155 


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156 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  49 

The  Average  Recitation  Time  in  Minutes  per  Week  Devoted  to  Each  Subject  in  Each  Grade 
(or  Standard)  in  Ten  Cities  of  England 


Grade 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

YII 

VIII 

1 55 

155 

156 

156 

156 

156 

156 

156 

2IO 

206 

i8i 

154 

140 

127 

108 

76 

123 

91 

85 

78 

69 

62 

73 

70 

66 

85 

60 

58 

43 

39 

33 

5 

42 

49 

66 

67 

67 

70 

67 

65 

52 

57 

56 

53 

54 

53 

50 

95 

43 

52 

6i 

54 

85 

99 

72 

25 

267 

266 

276 

308 

294 

293 

257 

231 

3 

3 

3 

5 

13 

35 

61 

136 

53 

64 

80 

91 

87 

88 

70 

97 

32 

38 

37 

42 

40 

40 

34 

58 

62 

61 

55 

44 

40 

41 

46 

92 

48 

49 

52 

42 

46 

43 

29 

30 

"5 

125 

125 

127 

127 

130 

121 

95 

64 

64 

64 

64 

67 

67 

65 

70 

8 

16 

19 

18 

50 

61 

71 

(103) 

(103) 

(106) 

(106) 

(107) 

(106) 

(126) 

(157) 

(14) 

(14) 

(14) 

(12) 

(12) 

(12) 

(12) 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

29 

36 

47 

1.347 

1,369 

1,361 

1,359 

1,380 

1,433 

1,359 

1,338 

Pet. 


I  Scripture 

3  Reading 

3  Writing 

4  Spelling 

5  Grammar 

6  Recitation  or  Literature 

7  Composition 

8  Arithmetic 

Algebra 

9  Geography 

10  History 

12  Object  Lessons 

13  Elementary  Science  . . . 

14  Nature  Study 

16  Physical  Training 

17  Drawing 

18  Singing 

ig  Wood-work 

20  Needle-work 

31  Cooking 

32  French 

Total 


II. 4 

II  .1 
6 

357 
4-5 
4-2 
4-5 

20. 1 
2.38 
5-7 
2.9 


4 

31 
8.8 
4.8 
2.1 
(8.3) 
(   .8) 


The  Average  Percentage  of  Recitation  Time  Given  to  Each  Subject  in  Each  Grade  in  Ten 

Cities  of  England 


I  Scripture 

3  Reading 

3  Writing 

4  Spelling 

5  Grammar 

6  Recitation  or  Literature . 

7  Composition 

8  Arithmetic 

Algebra 

9  Geography 

10  History 

13  Elementary  Science,  etc. 

16  Physical  Training 

17  Drawing 

18  Singing 

19  Wood-work 

20  Needle-work 

21  Cooking 

23  French 


11 

5 

11-3 

II 

5 

II 

5 

II 

3 

10 

9 

11-5 

II. 7 

IS 

6 

15-1 

13 

3 

II 

3 

10 

2 

8 

9 

7-9 

5-7 

8 

9 

6.7 

6 

3 

5 

8 

4 

9 

4 

4 

5-4 

5-2 

4 

9 

6.2 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

I 

2 

7 

2.4 

•  4 

3 

1 

3-6 

4 

9 

4 

9 

4 

9 

4 

9 

4-9 

4-9 

3 

9 

3.7 

3 

7 

3 

9 

3 

9 

3 

7 

3.7 

7-1 

3 

2 

3-8 

4 

5 

3 

9 

6 

2 

6 

9 

5.3 

1-9 

19 

8 

19.4 

19 

9 

22 

7 

21 

3 

20 

S 

18.9 

16.5 

2 

.2 

I 

2 

4 

9 

2 

5 

4.S 

10.2 

3 

9 

4-7 

5 

9 

6 

7 

6 

3 

6 

2 

5-2 

9.3 

2 

4 

2.8 

2 

7 

3 

I 

3 

9 

2 

8 

3.4 

6.9 

4 

6 

45 

4 

I 

3 

3 

3 

9 

2 

8 

3-4 

6.9 

3 

6 

3-6 

3 

8 

3 

I 

3 

4 

3 

2.2 

2.9 

8 

5 

91 

9 

2 

9 

4 

9 

2 

9 

I 

8.9 

7.1 

4 

8 

4.6 

4 

7 

4 

7 

4 

9 

4 

7 

4.8 

5.2 

6 

1.2 

9 

9 

3 

6 

4 

3 

5-2 

(7.7) 

(7.5) 

(7.8) 

(7.8) 

(7.8) 

(7.4) 

(9.3) 

(lo) 

(i.i) 

(  .9) 

(I.i) 

(  .9) 

(  .9) 

(  .9) 

(  .9) 

.3 

.3 

.1 

.1 

.1 

1.9 

2.7 

3.5 

Tlie  Elementary  School  Curriculum 


157 


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158 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   SI 

The  Average  Recitation  Time  in  Minutes  per  Week  Given  to  Each  Subject  in  Each  Grade 
IN  THE  Ten  German  Cities 


Grade 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

172 

199 

207 

234 

246 

246 

234 

588 

603 

600 

567 

513 

SOI 

583 

2S2 

282 

282 

282 

270 

270 

270 

58 

47 

113 

115 

III 

III 

134 

33 

60 

103 

1 03 

no 

80 

66 

TOO 

140 

126 

S4 

36 

60 

108 

132 

132 

132 

12 

42 

54 

60 

120 

114 

137 

S4 

54 

93 

99 

93 

93 

99 

(96) 

(132) 

(222) 

(234) 

(258) 

(346) 

(258) 

18 

42 

72 

102 

1,190 

1,263 

1,502 

1,609 

1.730 

1,782 

1,822 

VIII 


I  Religion 

6  Language i . . , 

8  Arithmetic.  . . 

9  Geography. . . 

10  History , 

14  Nature  Study 

16  Gymnastics. . 

17  Drawing 

18  Singing 

20  Handwork.  . . 

Geometry.  .  . 

Total 


Showing  the  Average  Percentage  of  Recitation  Time  Given  to  Each  Subject  in  Each  Grade 

IN  Ten  German  Cities 


I  Religion 

6  Language.  . . . 

8  Arithmetic.  .  . 

9  Geography.  .  . 

10  History 

14  Nature  Study 

16  Gymnastics. . 

17  Drawing. ... 

18  Singing 

30  Handwork.  . . 

Geometry. .  . 


14-5 

IS. 8 

13.8 

14.6 

14.2 

13-8 

13 

49-4 

47.8 

40 

35-3 

29.7 

28.2 

26. 5 

21.2 

22.3 

18.7 

17.6 

15.6 

15.2 

152 

4-9 

3-7 

7-5 

7.2 

6.4 

6.3 

7-4 

2.2 

3.8 

6 

5-8 

6 

5-3 

4 

5.8 

7.9 

7 

4.6 

2.8 

4  , 

6.7 

7.6 

7.4 

7-3 

I 

3.3 

3.6 

3.8 

7 

6.4 

7-3 

4-6 

4.3 

6.2 

6.2 

5-4 

5-2 

S-4 

(7.3) 

(9.3) 

(13-6) 

(13.5) 

(14.2) 

(13.4) 

(14) 

I 

2.4 

4.1 

5-6 

12.3 

26.5 
15.3 
8.3 

6.8 
6.2 
7.6 
7.2 
S  ^ 
(13.  S) 
6.5 


1  Language  includes  reading,  writing,  spelling,  literature  and  composition. 


The  Elementary  School  Curriculum 


159 


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ss 

< 

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i6o 


Educational  Administration 


An  interesting  comparison  with  Dr.  Payne's  data  is  made 
possible  by  the  figures  published  in  the  report  of  the  commission 
appointed  to  study  the  system  of  Education  in  the  Public  Schools 
of  Baltimore.^  These  results  from  the  larger  cities  of  the  country 
showing  a  wide  variability  are  representative  of  the  prevailing 
practice  in  city  school  systems  of  smaller  size  as  well. 

"The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  school  time 
allotted  in  the  suggested  schedules  to  the  subjects  that  are  gener- 
ally called  the  essentials,  namely,  English,  including  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  and  language;  arithmetic,  geography,  and 
history,  which  are  here  designated  as  the  'old'  subjects.  Sim- 
ilar allotments  in  certain  other  subjects  are  also  shown,  which 
are  here  designated  as  'new'  subjects,  such  as  drawing,  manual 
training,    etc." 

TABLE  sz 
Percentage  of  School  Time  Devoted  to  Old  Subjects  and  New  Subjects 


Cities 

Old 
Subjects 

New 
Subjects 

Cities 

Old 
Subjects 

New 

Subjects 

New  York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia.  .  .  . 

St.  Louis 

Boston.       .  .  . 

62.48 
52-60 
67.60 
70.87 
73-36 
79-55 

37-52 
47.40 
32.40 
29.13 
26.64 
20.45 

Baltimore 

Pittsburg 

Detroit 

San  Francisco  .  . 

Milwaukee 

Cincinnati 

77.90 
81.00 
83.80 
79.90 

75-45 
76.69 

22. 10 
19.00 
16.20 
20.10 

24-55 
23-31 

Cleveland 

^  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  4.  1911. 


The  Elementary  School  Curricidum 


i6i 


TABLE  54 

The  Minutes  per  Week  Devoted  to  the  Stxtoy  of  Arithmetic  and  Algebra 
IN  Certain  Cities  (19 ii) 


Year 

Cities 

Fiist 

Sec- 
ond 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Sev- 
enth 

Eighth 

Total 

New  York.  . . 

Chicago 

Philadelphia. 
St.  Louis .... 

Boston 

Cleveland  . . . 
Baltimore   .  . 
Pittsburg  .  .  . 

Detroit 

San  Francisco 
Milwaukee  .  . 
Cincinnati.  .  . 

I2S 

ISO 
100 

2S 

60 

250 

60 

7S 
150 

7S 
ISO 

ISO 
ISO 
200 

I2S 
210 
200 
200 
I  20 

ISO 
ISO 
100 
250 

ISO 
200 
200 
ISO 
210 
250 
200 
180 
200 
ISO 
ISO 
240 

ISO 
250 
200 
ISO 
270 
250 
200 
200 
225 
200 

I7S 
240 

ISO 
ISO 
225 
ISO 
270 
250 
250 
200 
250 
250 

I7S 
240 

200 
ISO 
225 
ISO 
230 
250 
250 
240 
250 
250 
200 
300 

200 
ISO 
22s 
ISO 
210 
300 

27s 
300 

27s 
250 
200 
300 

200 
150 
225 
ISO 
210 
300 

27s 
360 

27s 
250 
212 
360 

1,325 
1,200 
1,650 
1,125 

1,63s 
1,860 
1,900 
1,660 

1,775 
1,650 
1,287 
2,080 

TABLE   55 

The  Percentage  of  School  Time  Exclusive  of  Recesses  and  Opening  Ex- 
ercises Devoted  to  the  Study  of  Arithmetic  and  Algebra  in  the 
Grades,  in  1890  and  in  1910-11,  in  Certain  Cities 


Cities 

Year 

Cities 

Year 

1890       1    1910-11 

1890 

1910-11 

New  York 

Chicago 

26.2 
9-3 

193 
16.6 
14. 1 
19s 

13 
10 
16 
IS 
IS 
IS 

18 
18 

4 
0 
I 
0 

s 

5 
3 
0 

Detroit 

Buffalo 

17.2 

14.0 
iS-5 
134 

16.0 

Philadelphia 

St.  Louis 

Boston 

San  Francisco  .... 

Milwaukee 

Cincinnati 

Average 

16.6 

14-7 
18.8 

Cleveland 

Baltimore 

Pittsburg 

16.5 

15.8 

l62 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  56 

The  Year  of  the  Course  in  Which  Specified  Topics  in  Arithmetic  Are 
Treated  in  the  Certain  Cities 


Cities 


45  Com- 
binations 
Learned 


Multipli- 
cation 
Tables 

Learned 


Long 
Division 
Taught 


Addition 
and  Sub- 
traction 
of  Frac- 
tions 
Taught 


Multipli- 
cation 
and  Divi- 
sion of 
Fractions 
TaughtJ 


Decimals 
Taught 


Per- 
centage 
Taught 


New  York.  . . 

Chicago 

Philadelphia.  . 
St.  Louis.  .  .  . 

Boston 

Cleveland  . . . 
Baltimore  .  . . 
Pittsburg .... 

Detroit 

Buffalo 

San  P'rancisco 
Milwaukee  .  . 
Cincinnati.  .  . 


TABLE   57 

The  Percentage  of  the  School  Time,  Exclusive  of  Opening  Exercises  and 
Recesses,  Devoted  to  the  Study  of  Geography  in  Various  Cities  in 
1890  and  in  19io-ii 


Cities 

i8qo 

igio-ii 

Cities 

1890 

igio-ii 

New  York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia.  .  . 

St.  Louis 

Boston 

Cleveland 

Baltimore 

Pittsburg 

2.7 
4-9 

8.9 
6.8 
6.9 
6.3 

6.2 

4-4 
7.0 

7-3 
6.2 
7.2 
II. 0 
9.0 

Detroit 

Buffalo 

San  Francisco  .  . 

Milwaukee 

Cincinnati 

Average 

8.6 

8.9 
6.0 
6.5 

8.2 

7-5 
6.7 
6.1 

6-55 

7-23 

^  No  data  at  hand. 


The  Elementary  School  Curriculum 


103 


TABLE   s8 

The  Percentage  of  Time  Devoted  to  Manual  Training  in  Certain  Cities 

IN  1910-H 


City 

Percentage 

City 

Percentage 

New  York 

4, 7 

Pittsburg 

5 

1-4 
(') 
1.8 

Chicago 

9 
3 
2 
6 
4 
5 

9 
5 
4 
2 
8 
3 

Detroit 

Philadelphia.  .  .              ... 

Buffalo 

St.  Louis 

San  Francisco 

Boston 

Milwaukee 

6.2 

Cleveland 

Cincinnati 

2.  2 

Baltimore 

Doubtless  the  variation  found  in  the  time  allotted  to  the  va- 
rious subjects  is  due  in  some  degree  to  a  corresponding  difference 
in  emphasis  upon  the  subject  in  question,  i.  e.  a  difference  in  the 
product  expected.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  single  school 
system  with  a  reputation  for  good  work  influences  many  others. 
Much  must  be  allowed  for  tradition  and  something  for  a  passing 
demand  which  leads  now  and  again  to  additional  emphasis  on 
this  or  that  subject. 

A  scientific  allotment  of  time  and  organization  of  the  course 
of  study  will  be  possible  only  when  we  define  more  accurately 
the  ends  which  we  desire  and  perfect  the  scales  or  units  of  meas- 
urement which  we  apply  in  measuring  results  in  education.  We 
will  concern  ourselves  with  certain  optima  the  resultants  of  time 
devoted  to  the  given  subject  and  the  product  secured.  The 
optimum  in  a  subject  like  arithmetic  or  handwriting  will  be 
thought  of  in  terms  of  three  variables,  the  amount  and  distribu- 
tion of  time,  the  product  in  terms  of  accuracy  or  form,  and  the 
speed  with  which  the  given  result  is  achieved.  If  we  can  deter- 
mine that  a  certain  standard  of  form  is  desirable  in  penmanship 
and  that  the  pupil  must  be  able  to  produce  these  forms  at  a  cer- 
tain speed,  we  can  then  experiment  with  the  amount  and  distri- 


'  No  data  at  hand. 


164  Educational  Administration 

bution  of  time  with  a  definite  goal  in  view.  When  such  experi- 
ments are  undertaken,  it  will  be  necessary  to  allow  for  individual 
differences.  Possibly  our  standards  may  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  accomplishment  of  the  median  individual  and  in  terms  of 
the  variability  from  this  central  tendency. 


§  15-  Size  of  School  as  a  Conditioning  Factor  in  Secondary 

Education  ^ 

The  most  typical,  in  the  sense  of  the  most  frequent,  secondary 
school  in  the  United  States  is  a  school  taught  by  one  teacher.  The 
secondary  schools  in  the  country  with  only  one  teacher  outnum- 
ber by  a  considerable  figure  all  those  with  five  or  more  teachers. 
Those  with  only  one  or  two  teachers  outnumber  by  a  considerable 
figure  all  the  rest.  Those  with  one,  two,  or  three  teachers  are  ten 
times  as  frequent  as  those  with  ten  or  more  teachers  and  five 
times  as  frequent  as  those  with  from  five  up  to  ten  teachers. 

Of  course  the  fact  that  the  one-teacher  school  is  much  the 
most  frequent  does  not  mean  that  a  secondary  school  student 
will  most  frequently  attend  a  one-teacher  school.  The  typical 
secondary  school  education  in  the  sense  of  the  sort  of  secondary 
education  most  commonly  given  need  not  be  that  given  in  a  one- 
teacher  school.  Still  the  frequency  of  the  schools  of  small  teach- 
ing force  is  so  much  greater  that  in  spite  of  the  large  registration 
of  city  high  schools  there  are  more  pupils  in  the  two-teacher  high 
schools  than  in  any  other  one  group,  unless,  perhaps,  the  three- 
teacher  schools,  and  more  in  schools  with  three  teachers  or  less 
than  in  schools  of  from  five  to  thirteen  teachers,  and  nearly  if 
not  quite  as  many  as  in  schools  of  fifteen  or  more  teachers. 

The  printed  discussions  of  secondary  school  problems  seem 
to  have  in  view  to  a  large  degree  a  school  of  six  to  twelve  teachers 
with  two  or  three  hundred  pupils.  The  report  of  the  Committee 
of  Ten  strikes  one  as  unconsciously  based  upon  the  acceptance 
of  some  such  quantity  as  typical  for  secondary  schools.    It  is 

1  This  section  is  quoted  with  slight  alterations  from  an  article  entitled  "A  Neg- 
lected Aspect  of  the  American  High  School,"  by  Edward  L.  Thorndike,  which 
appeared  in  the  Educational  Review  in  March,  1907  (Vol.  XXXIII,  No.  3). 

i6S 


1 66  Educational  Administration 

nowhere  typical  in  any  valuable  sense,  and  is  about  as  little 
typical  as  could  be  expected  in  Massachusetts.  Schools  of  one 
or  two  teachers  only  are  six  times  as  frequent  and  enroll  more 
pupils.  Schools  of  twenty  teachers  or  more  enroll  as  many  pupils. 
Either  the  district  high  school,  as  we  may  call  the  one-  or  two- 
teacher  school,  or  the  unlimited  possibility  high  school,  as  we  may 
call  one  that  commands  the  services  of  twenty  or  more  teachers, 
is  a  more  important  educational  agency  in  this  country  than  the 
six-  to  twelve-teacher  high  school. 

The  facts  concerning  the  size  of  teaching  staff  and  the  size  of 
student  body,  and  consequently  the  opportunity  for  a  varied 
program  of  studies,  advanced  instruction,  periods  of  a  half-hour's 
length,  specialized  equipment  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  the  like, 
are  shown  in  Table  59  and  Figure  22,  which  give  the  frequencies 
of  different  sizes  of  teaching  staff  for  the  country  as  a  whole ;  and 
in  Table  60  and  Figure  23,  which  give  roughly  the  frequencies 
of  different  sizes  of  student  body. 

These  facts  show  that  the  high  school  is,  like  the  "college," 
an  institution  of  enormous  variability  as  regards  its  capacity  for 
educational  work  and  its  administrative  and  educational  arrange- 
ments. 

This  variability  has  never  been  fully  realized  in  the  discussions 
of  secondary  school  problems.  The  recommendations  made  are 
often  utterly  impossible  of  realization  by  the  village  high  school 
and  decidedly  unwise  for  the  unlimited  possibility  high  school. 
The  rule  must  in  the  nature  of  the  case  be  that  what  is  best  for 
any  one-fifth  of  high  school  effort  is  not  the  best  for  any  other 
fifth.  Because  of  historical  reasons  the  village  high  schools  and 
the  schools  of  unlimited  possibility  have  suffered  most. 

The  one-  or  two-teacher  high  school  has  been  confined  to  text- 
books made  for  class  instruction  in  periods  of  thirty  minutes  or 
more.  It  has  been  led  to  attempt  to  teach  chiefly  foreign  lan- 
guages and  mathematics,  the  subjects  where  close  grading  and 


Size  of  School  as  a  Factor  in  Secondary  Education  167 


2200,—, 

2100 


12   3  4  5  6  7   8  etc. 


Z\ 


30 


Number  of  Teachers 
Fig.  22.  Relative  frequencies  of  public  high  schools  of  1,2,  3, 4,  etc.  teachers  (1904) 


1 68 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   59 


Number  of  Public  High  Schools  (1904) 

*0    r/3 

"°2 

1-4     OJ 

ti  a> 

North 

Atlantic 

States 

•5  2  •& 
ogS 

North 

Central 

States 

Western 
States 

District  of 
Columbia 

Entire 
United  States 

I 

322 

200 

24s 

1,320 

88 

2,17s 

I 

3 

3g2 

138 

227 

968 

82 

1,807 

2 

3 

25 1 

69 

148 

662 

91 

1,221 

3 

4 

i8s 

41 

66 

306 

42 

640 

4 

5 

io6 

19 

30 

190 

36 

380 

5 

6 

78 

4 

9 

98 

18 

207 

6 

7 

6i 

7 

14 

80 

10 

172 

7 

8 

28 

S 

2 

44 

8 

87 

8 

9 

26 

S 

6 

31 

6 

74 

9 

lO 

14 

3 

2 

24 

S 

48 

10 

II 

12 

2 

25 

3 

42 

II 

12 

IS 

4 

17 

2 

38 

12 

13 

9 

2 

3 

13 

3 

30 

13 

14 

17 

2 

12 

4 

35 

14 

IS 

10 

1 

6 

3 

20 

IS 

10 

II 

2 

2 

2 

I 

18 

16 

17 

6 

2 

4 

2 

14 

17 

i8 

II 

I 

6 

3 

I 

23 

18 

19 

6 

2 

2 

1 

II 

19 

20 

7 

5 

12 

20 

31 

S 

I 

6 

2 

14 

21 

22 

5 

I 

4 

I 

II 

22 

33 

6 

S 

.11 

33 

34 

8 

4 

4 

17 

24 

35 

(? 

4 

10 

35 

26 

0 

I 

I 

7 

26 

37 

2 

4 

6 

37 

28 

2 

I 

5 

28 

39 

2 

I 

I 

4 

39 

30 

3 

2 

5 

30 

31 

I 

I 

31 

33 

4 

I 

I 

6 

33 

33 

I 

I 

33 

34 

2 

3 

34 

35 

I 

2 

3 

35 

36 

I 

2 

3 

36 

37 

3 

2 

S 

37 

38 

4 

4 

38 

39 

39 

40 

I 

I 

40 

Also  seventeen 

Also  eight 

Also  one 

Also  one  of 

Also  twenty- 

schools  of  over 

schools  of  over 

each  of  43 

45  teachers 

eight  over 

40  teachers 

40  teachers 

and  51 
teachers 

40  teachers 

41-  so  S 

41-S0  2 

SI-  60  4 

51-60  3 

61-  70  2 

61-70  2 

71-  80  3 

71-80  0 

81-  90  I 

81-90  I 

91-100  0 

101-109  2 

Size  of  School  as  a  Factor  in  Secondary  Education  169 

recitation  methods  are  most  necessary.  It  has  been  stigmatized 
for  failure  to  maintain  a  four-year  course  or  the  pretense  of  one. 
The  first  two  results  are  almost  certainly  unfortunate  and  the 
third  is  probably  so.  Text-books  somewhat  after  the  pattern 
used  by  the  best  correspondence  schools  would  be  much  more 
efficient.    By  replacing  four  classes  in  Latin  receiving  only  fifteen 

TABLE  60 

Showing  the  Approximate  Proportions  of  the  Public  High  School  Enrollment  of  the  United 
States  in  Schools  of  from  i  to  ho  Teachers  (1904) 

Number  of  Students 

Teachers  Enrolled 

In  schools  of      I-    3  teachers  are  36 . 6  per  cent  of  the  public  high  school  students 


4-  6 

7-  10  "      9 

1-  10  "      68 

II-  20  "      13 

21-  30  "       7 

31-  40  "       3 

41-  so  "       2 

SI-  60  "       1 

61-  70  "       I 

71-  80  " 

81-  90  " 

QI-IOO  " 

lOI-IIO  " 


minutes  a  day  each  by  one  class  in  English  enrolling  pupils  of  all 
four  years  and  doing  different  work  each  year  of  a  quadrennium, 
the  teacher  would  have  a  class  of  size  sufficient  to  arouse  enthu- 
siasm and  mutual  interests  in  the  students,  taught  for  a  full 
forty-minute  period  daily,  and  still  have  twenty  minutes  daily 
to  apply  to  the  strengthening  of  other  courses.  The  same  result 
would  be  reached  by  making  a  quadrennium  course  in  science, 
say  biology,  physics,  chemistry,  and  agriculture. 

To  teach  a  four-year  course  poorly  may  for  certain  social  rea- 
sons have  advantages  over  teaching  a  two-year  course  twice  as 
well,  but  in  ultimate  educational  value  it  cannot  be  as  good  in 
the  case  of  a  one-  or  two-teacher  high  school.  Pupils  who  are 
able  to  give  the  last  two  years  to  continued  secondary  education 
ought  to  be  encouraged  to  go  to  a  larger  high  school.  It  is  not 
economical  to  try  to  fit  the  enormous  variability  of  local  educa- 
tional endeavor  to  a  scale  so  coarse  as  "elementary  school," 


170 


Educational  Administration 


30 


25- 


20- 


s£l 


45 


50 


60 


70 


75 


n 


n 


80  90  100  105 

Fig.  23.  'ITie  horizontal  line  is  for  the  size  of  school  (number  of  teachers):  the 
heights  give  the  approximate  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  as  measured  by  the 
number  of  thousands  of  teachers  employed  (1904). 


"elementary  school  and  high  school,"  and  "elementary  school, 
high  school,  and  college."  We  need  two-year  high  schools  as 
truly  as  four-year  high  schools.     And  we  lower,  not  raise,  edu- 


Size  of  School  as  a  Factor  in  Secondary  Education  171 

cational  standards  by  providing  a  four-year  course  for  a  high 
school  with  only  one  teacher  to  do  its  work. 

An  easy,  but  perhaps  the  wrong,  solution  for  the  village  high 
school  problem  will  rise  in  every  one's  mind — consolidation. 
The  difficulties  of  consolidation  are  here  of  course  far  greater 
than  in  elementary  schools.  And  consoUdation  theoretically 
should  result  not  only  in  replacing  one-  and  two-teacher  high 
schools  by  four-  or  six-teacher  schools,  but  also  in  replacing  no 
high  school  by  one-  and  two- teacher  schools,  giving  us  the  same 
problem  again.  Into  the  details  of  this  problem  I  shall  not  enter, 
as  this  article  is  intended  to  show  the  significance  of  statistics 
rather  than  to  contribute  to  theories  of  administration.  I  ven- 
ture, however,  to  correct  one  opinion  which  is  demonstrably  un- 
just to  the  village  high  schools,  the  opinion  that  they  are  the  re- 
sult of  relatively  low  educational  ideals. 

The  predominance  of  small  over  large  high  schools  is  by  no 
means  symptomatic  of  poor  support  of  secondary  education  by 
a  community.  This  fact  is  shown  by  Table  61,  which  gives  the 
states  ranked  in  order  for  the  smallness  of  the  proportion  of 
secondary  students  enrolled  in  schools  with  only  one,  two  or  three 
teachers;  and  for  the  general  support  of  secondary  education  as 
measured  by  the  number  of  public  high-school  teachers  per  thou- 
sand of  population.  For  example,  Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey  and 
New  York,  though  very  free  from  the  one-  two-  three-teacher 
high  school,  are  near  mediocrity  in  respect  to  degree  of  support, 
while  Maine,  Nebraska  and  South  Dakota,  though  characterized 
by  many  small  high  schools,  rank  very  high  in  degree  of  support 
of  secondary  education.  Some  of  the  states  that  are  in  the  top 
fifth  for  the  number  of  public  high  school  teachers  provided  for 
one  thousand  of  the  population  are  distinctly  village  high  school 
states.  Nor  do  those  states,  such  as  California,  Minnesota,  and 
Wisconsin,  which,  though  rural  states,  are  exceptional  in  the  low 
percentage  of  one-  and  two-teacher  high  schools,  provide  any  bet- 


172 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  61 

The  States  Ranked  in  Order  by  the  Smaxlness  of  the  Proportion  of  Second- 
ary Students  Enrolled  in  Schools  with  One,  Two  or  Three  Teachers 
(Column  Headed  "Size  of  Schools")  and  by  the  Number  of  Public 
High  School  Teachers  per  Thousand  of  Population  (Column  Headed 
"Support  of  Schools").    Data  for  1904 


Size  of 
Schools 

Support  of 
Schools 

I 

21 

2 

I   . 

3 

25 

4 

20 

5 

31 

6 

7 
8 

9 

3 

I5K 

36>^ 

10 

22 

II 

12 
13 

19 

13K 

14 

II 

IS 

34 

16 

8 

17 
18 

34 

6K 

19 

20 

27       • 
6>^ 

21 

42 

22 

31 

23 

45 

24 

42 

25 

47 

Size  of      Support  of 
Schools     i     Schools 


Rhode  Island  .  . 
Massachusetts  . 
New  Jersey.  .  .  . 

New  York 

Utah 

Colorado 

California 

Connecticut  .  .  . 
New  Mexico  ^  . 
Illinois 

Minnesota 

Wisconsin 

Montana 

New  Hampshire 
Maryland 

Michigan 

Oklahoma 

Washington  .  .  . 

Delaware 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Pennsylvania  . . 

Virginia 

Louisiana 

No.  Carolina  .  .  . 


Missouri.  .  . 

Idaho  

Ohio 

Indiana.  .  .  . 
W.  Virginia 

Vermont.  .  . 
No.  Dakota 
Kansas  .  .  .  . 
Arkansas.  .  . 
Maine 

Texas 

So.  Carolina 
Mississippi. 
Nebraska  .  . 
Georgia.  .  . . 

Oregon  .  .  .  . 
Wyoming  .  . 
Florida  .  .  .  . 
Tennessee.  . 
Alabama.  .  . 

So.  Dakota. 
Nevada. .  . . 


26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


31 
32 
Z2, 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 


26 

31 
10 

5 
40 

9 
23 
12 

45 
4 

29 
36J^ 

38A 

24 
28 

34 
42 

45 

13A 
17  A 


ter  for  secondary  education  than  their  neighbors  Washington, 
Michigan,  Indiana,  and  South  Dakota,  which  have  high  percent- 
ages. The  large  cities  often,  perhaps  usually,  do  not  provide  for 
secondary  education  so  well  as  do  the  towns.  For  instance,  San 
Francisco,  Chicago,  Philadelpha,  and  New  York  do  not  provide 
anywhere  nearly  so  many  public  high  school  teachers  per  thou- 

^  Including  Arizona  also, 


Size  of  School  as  a  Factor  in  Secondary  Education  173 

sand  of  population  as  their  respective  states  do.  A  two- teacher 
high  school  in  a  town  of  two  thousand  may  seem  to  the  modern 
educator  a  rather  despicable  educational  institution,  but  it  means 
a  provision  for  secondary  education  far,  far  above  the  average  of 
any  state  and  still  farther  above  the  average  of  all  save  a  very 
few  cities. 

The  high  school  of  the  large  cities  has  suffered  as  truly.  A 
school  with  thirty  or  more  teachers  might  well  aspire  to  approxi- 
mate the  ideal  of  big  institutions  where  a  boy  or  girl  from  thirteen 
to  nineteen  could  learn  anything  that  it  was  well  for  him  at  that 
age  to  know.  A  rich  elective  system,  the  provision  of  technical 
and  semi-professional  education,  the  opportunity  for  work  of  the 
continuation-school  type  during  two  or  more  forenoons  a  week, 
and  many  other  flexibilities  of  adaptation  of  the  school  to  its  pu- 
pils' natures  and  needs  are  here  possible  as  they  could  never  be  in  a 
ten-teacher  school.  The  natural  tendency  of  school  boards  would 
have  been  to  favor  such  a  university  for  the  'teens.  But  the 
innocent  mistake  of  writers  who,  properly  convinced  that  multi- 
pUcation  of  courses  in  a  five-  to  ten-teacher  school  meant  super- 
ficiality and  waste,  insisted  that  it  always  meant  superficiahty 
and  waste,  has  established  the  fad  of  regarding  a  simple  program 
of  studies  composed  of  the  staple  algebra,  geometry,  EngHsh,  two 
or  more  foreign  languages,  and  the  like,  as  the  dignified  and  first- 
class  thing  in  a  high  school.  Two  hundred  students  living  within 
a  mile  of  one  high  school  travel  four  miles  to  a  technical  high 
school,  though  of  the  fifty  teachers  in  tlie  first,  five  or  six  might 
well  teach  them  what  they  need  to  learn.  Five  hundred  of  the 
pupils  in  the  first  school  are  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of  study- 
ing to  some  little  extent  the  technical  arts  and  industries,  though 
they  ought  to  do  so. 

It  would  be  far  more  practicable  for  schools  with  twenty-five 
or  more  teachers  to  do  satisfactorily  two  years'  work  in  advance 
of  the  present  four-year  secondary  course  than  it  is  for  over  half 


174  Educational  Administration 

of  the  high  schools  to  do  satisfactorily  the  work  of  the  last  two 
years  of  the  present  course.  The  large  high  schools  could  do  the 
work  better  than  a  third  of  the  colleges  legally  giving  degrees, 
the  third  having  eight  or  less  instructors. 

We  may  expect  that  as  American  education  becomes  more  and 
more  rationally  organized,  the  small  college  will  not  pretend  to  be 
more  than  either  a  pleasant  and  cultured  social  resort  for  youth's 
leisure  or  a  fitting  school  for  the  professional  schools,  higher 
technical  schools  and  institutions  for  specialized  study  of  the 
sciences  of  nature  and  of  man.  But  we  may  also  expect  that  the 
city  high  schools  will  assume  this  same  function  of  fitting  schools, 
not  for  college,  but  for  these  same  professional  schools,  higher 
technical  schools  and  universities — that  the  large  high  schools 
will  become  in  fact  what  they  are  now  in  possibility. 

The  twenty-five  teacher  high  school  misses  some  of  the  social 
advantages  of  the  small  school.  Teachers  do  not  know  one  an- 
other. Pupils  have  less  chance  of  becoming  humanized  and  more 
danger  of  becoming  institutionalized.  Democracy  loses  an  ef- 
fctive  helper.  Athletics  become  a  question  of  finance  rather  than 
play.  The  boys  mimic  college  fraternities  and  men's  clubs  in  their 
social  organizations.  Perhaps  such  measures  as  the  provision 
of  a  special  teacher  to  act  as  social  secretary  may  relieve  these 
disadvantages.  If  they  cannot  be  avoided,  it  is  all  the  more 
necessary  for  the  large  high  school  to  compensate  by  richer  pro- 
vision for  the  more  purely  intellectual  and  practical  needs  of  its 
students.  If  the  big  city  high  school  does  no  more  than  give 
such  a  program  of  studies  as  the  traditional  Massachusetts 
high  school,  it  probably  does  not  do  as  well  by  its  students  as  the 
smaller  schools.  .  .  . 

The  institutions  which  we  call  by  the  same  name,  public  high 
schools,  cannot  (and  probably  ought  not  if  they  could)  be  all 
made  to  fulfill  similar  aims  or  to  be  administered  in  similar 
fashion.    There  is  no  typical  high  school  in  any  useful  sense  of  the 


Size  of  School  as  a  Factor  in  Secondary  Education     175 

word.  Probably  no  one  of  all  the  thousands  of  high  schools  is 
doing  the  best  possible  thing  for  education,  but  most  of  them 
would  do  worse  than  they  now  do  if  they  all  did  do  the  best  pos- 
sible thing  for  any  one  of  them.  There  are  faults  to  be  corrected 
by  the  adoption  of  conventional  practices,  but  there  are  also  faults 
to  be  corrected  by  abandoning  conventional  practices.  This  is  so 
widely  true  because  the  conventions  have  been  established  by  a 
sort  of  school  which  represents  but  a  very  moderate  fraction  of 
secondary   education. 


§i6.  The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations^ 

The  facts  which  I  shall  present  concern  the  records  in  entrance 
examinations  and  the  academic  careers  of  all  the  students  of 
Columbia  College  entering  in  1901,  1902,  and  1903,  and  espe- 
cially the  relation  between  their  success  in  the  entrance  examina- 
tions and  their  success  in  college.  From  these  facts  it  will  be 
proved  that  even  so  carefully  managed  examinations  as  these 
are  an  extremely  imperfect  means  of  estimating  an  individual's 
fitness  for  college.  The  suggestions  to  be  made  concern  a  simple 
and  practicable  development  of  the  work  of  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board  which  would  remedy  the  defects  of  examina- 
tion systems  and  still  not  introduce  the  doubtful  features  of  tljp 
usual  certificate  systems. 

In  1901,  1902,  and  1903  there  entered  Columbia  College  253 
students  who  have  complete,  or  nearly  complete,  records  of 
standings  in  entrance  examinations  and  who  stayed  in  college 
through  the  freshman  year.  I  have  complete  records  of  the 
standing  through  senior  year  of  56  of  these  and  complete  records 
through  junior  year  of  130.  Detailed  reference  will  be  made 
here  only  to  the  130  students  whose  college  history  can  be  in- 
vestigated for  three  years  or  more,  though  the  facts  concerning 
the  remaining  1 23  have  been  studied  in  detail  and  give  abundant 
corroborative  evidence. 

The  important  facts  concerning  the  relationship  of  success  in 
entrance  examinations  to  success  in  college  work  are  given  in 
Tables  62,  63,  64  and  65.  They  prove  that  we  cannot  estimate 
the  latter  from  the  former  with  enough  accuracy  to  make  the 

^  This  section  reprints  portions  of  an  article  entitled  "The  Future  of  the 
College  Entrance  Examination  Board"  by  Edward  L.  Thorndike,  from  the 
Educational  Review,  May,  1906  (Vol.  XXXI,  No.  5). 

176 


The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations     177 

entrance  examinations  worth  taking  or  to  prevent  gross  and 
intolerable  injustice  being  done  to  many  individuals. 

For  instance,  6  students  out  of  the  130  received  the  same 
average  entrance  mark — 61.  In  their  college  work  of  junior  year, 
I  averaged  a  trifle  above  D;  i  half-way  from  D  to  C;  i  a  little 
above  C,  and  2  received  A  in  four  subjects  out  of  five,  and  B  in 
the  other.  In  freshman  and  sophomore  year,  the  range  was  nearly 
as  great. 

Eleven  students  of  the  130  received  in  the  entrance  examina- 
tions marks  averaging  70  in  each  case.  In  their  college  work  of 
junior  year,  they  averaged  all  the  way  from  D  to  A. 

Of  the  students  who  were  in  the  lower  half  of  the  group  in  the 
entrance  examinations,  nearly  40  per  cent  are  found  in  the  upper 
half  in  the  last  three  years  of  college. 

Of  the  dozen  students  who  ranked  highest  in  entrance,  some 
were  in  the  lowest  fifth  of  the  class  by  jum'or  year. 

If,  knowing  that  50  individuals  ranked  in  the  order  Joiies, 
Smith,  Brown,  etc.,  in  their  entrance  marks,  one  were  to  wager 
that  in  the  college  work  of,  say,  junior  year,  they  would  rank 
Jones,  Smith,  Brown,  etc.,  as  before,  he  would  lose  his  bet  in  47 
cases  out  of  the  50. 

The  record  of  eleven  or  more  entrance  examinations  gives  a 
less  accurate  prophecy  of  what  a  student  will  do  in  the  latter  half 
of  his  college  course  than  does  the  college  record  of  his  brother! 
The  correlation  between  brothers  in  intellectual  ability  is  approxi- 
mately .40,  but  that  between  standing  in  entrance  examinations 
and  standing  in  college  of  the  same  person  is  only  .47  for  junior 
year  and  .25  for  senior  year.  Even  in  the  case  of  sophomore  year, 
the  correlation  is  only  .60. 

The  entrance  examinations  also  bear  internal  evidence  of  their 
inadequacy  as  measures  of  fitness  for  college.  If  a  student  who 
fails  in  his  first  trial  of  an  examination  gets  a  vastly  different 
mark  a  few  months  or  even  a  year  later,  it  is  clear  that  the 


178  Educational  Administration 

examination  in  so  far  does  not  test  capacity  so  much  as  the 
carefuhiess  of  the  coaching  or  the  dihgence  of  the  candidate's 
cram.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  150  cases  of  repeated  examinations, 
the  two  marks  from  the  same  student  show  a  median  difference 
of  over  22  (the  scale  of  marking  being  the  common  one  of  100  down 
to  o).  The  differences  between  the  earlier  and  later  marks  of 
one  student  are  greater  than  the  difference  between  the  marks 
of  different  students  chosen  at  random. 

Moreover,  the  marks  on  which  a  student  is  admitted  are  not 
so  good  a  test  of  his  fitness  to  do  the  work  of  the  college  as  the 
marks  of  his  first  trials.  If  the  students  are  ranked  by  their  first 
trials  of  the  examinations,  the  order  corresponds  much  more 
closely  to  their  order  of  achievement  in  college  than  when  they 
are  ranked  by  their  official  entrance  marks. 

Where  there  are  several  examinations  in  one  general  subject, 
such  as  Latin,  the  different  marks  of  the  same  individual  in  the 
one  subject  vary  in  such  eccentric  ways  that  an  individual  who 
is  marked  the  lowest  of  twenty  in  one  is  at  times  marked  the 
highest  of  twenty  in  the  other.  The  average  range  of  difference 
of  an  individual's  separate  marks  in  Latin  in  the  entering  class 
of  1902  was  over  26! 

The  general  inadequacy  of  the  entrance  examinations  from 
which  the  colleges  suffer  is  not  so  important  as  their  enormous 
individual  inaccuracies,  from  which  individual  students  suffer. 

The  entrance  marks  often  utterly  misrepresent  the  fitness  of  a 
student  for  college  work.  For  instance,  there  were  10  men  out 
of  the  130  who  in  their  junior  year  got  A  (the  highest  mark  given) 
in  at  least  five  studies.  Their  average  marks  at  entrance  were  in 
some  cases  in  the  lowest  tenth  of  the  130,  barely  above  the  pass- 
ing mark.  Had  the  passing  mark  been  set  the  least  bit  higher, 
one  of  the  very  best  students  of  the  three  college  classes  would 
have  been  debarred  from  entrance.  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  of  those  students  who  did  yet  worse  in  the  entrance 


The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations     179 

examinations  and  so  were  shut  out,  a  fairly  large  percentage 
would  have  done  better  in  college  than  a  third  of  those  who  were 
admitted.  Sooner  or  later  there  will  be  some  one  so  barred  out 
who  would,  if  admitted,  have  been  the  best  man  in  his  class.  It 
is  a  moral  atrocity  to  decide  the  fitness  of  an  individual  for  col- 
lege by  a  system  which,  when  required  to  work  to  a  moderate 
degree  of  accuracy,  is  wrong  47  times  out  of  50! 

From  many  facts  such  as  these,  which  the  scientific  reader  can 
find  in  tables  62-64,  it  is  certain  that  the  traditional  entrance 
examinations,  even  when  as  fully  safeguarded  as  in  the  case  of 
those  given  by  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  do 
not  prevent  incompetents  from  getting  into  college;  do  not  pre- 
vent students  of  excellent  promise  from  being  discouraged,  im- 
properly conditioned  or  barred  out  altogether;  do  not  measure 
fitness  for  college  well  enough  to  earn  the  respect  of  students  or 
teachers;  and  do  intolerable  injustice  to  individuals.  There  u 
surely  room  for  improvement. 

It  is  unprofitable  to  seek  a  remedy  in  any  modification  of  the 
examination  along  conventional  lines.  Doubtless,  more  elabo- 
rate examinations,  the  employment  of  more  readers  and  the  like 
might  alleviate  the  chief  evil  somewhat,  but  evolution  in  this  di- 
rection is  along  the  line  of  greatest  resistance.  It  is  conceivable 
that  some  of  the  colleges  that  maintain  independent  examinations 
for  entrance  may  secure  better  results,  though  I  should  expect 
them  to  be  worse.  I  wished  tp  study  the  records  of  200  Harvard 
students  in  connection  with  the  253  Columbia  records,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  obtaining  President  Eliot's  permission  to  examine 
the  records. 

The  usual  certificating  systems  are  not  entirely  suitable  to 
the  purposes  of  Eastern  colleges.  The  geographical  distribution 
of  the  secondary  schools  which  send  students  to,  say,  Amherst 
or  Princeton  makes  the  direct  examinations  of  schools  exceedingly 
burdensome;  the  possibility  that  colleges  might  compete  for  the 


i8o  Educational  Administration 

support  of  important  secondary  schools  is  distasteful;  the  at- 
tempt to  introduce  certification  generally  would  probably  result 
in  a  return  to  chaotic  individualism. 

Moreover,  there  is  one  fundamental  weakness  in  both  systems 
as  practiced;  in  intent  and  in  execution  effort  is  directed  solely 
toward  keeping  unfit  students  out  rather  than  toward  getting 
desirable  students  in.  Both  systems  are  connected  partty  as 
cause  and  partly  as  effect,  with  a  shortsighted  neglect  of  the  fact 
that,  for  the  good  of  the  social  organism  (and,  for  that  matter, 
of  the  college,  too),  it  is  more  important  to  give  advanced  educa- 
tion to  one  boy  who  most  needs  it,  can  profit  most  by  it,  and  use 
it  in  the  world's  service  than  to  prevent  from  entering  upon  it 
a  hundred  boys  who  are  not  able  to  measure  up  to  its  demands. 
Letting  incompetents  into  college  is,  perhaps,  poor  economy, 
although  in  a  well  regulated  college  they  do  not  stay  long,  or  do 
more  harm  than  they  get  good.  But  to  make  a  college  education 
an  impossibihty  for  the  really  capable  boy,  in  whose  case  the 
education  is  an  investment  by  society  that  will  yield  from  a 
hundred  to  ten  thousand  per  cent,  is  criminal. 

My  suggestion  for  the  future  development  of  the  College 
Entrance  Examination  Board  aims  at  securing  a  system  that 
is,  first  of  all,  a  positive  force  selecting  for  continued  education 
those  who  deserve  it;  a  system  that  will,  in  the  second  place, 
cooperate  with  secondary  schools  in  their  endeavors  to  improve 
the  conditions  and  quality  of  secondary  school  work;  a  system 
also  that  will,  though  rigorous,  still  be  just;  a  system  that  will  be 
rational  and  measure  directly  fitness  for  college,  not  the  mere 
opinion  of  inspectors  or  the  length  and  assiduity  of  study,  or  the 
ingenious  art  of  parading  knowledge  in  a  form  to  beguile  exam- 
iners; finally,  a  system  that  will  be  a  natural  development  of 
existing  arrangements  and  will  make  full  use  of  the  admirable 
organization  furnished  by  the  Middle  States  board. 

It  is,  in  brief,  that  the  colleges  which  now  intrust  to  the  board 


The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations     i8i 

the  function  of  examining  students,  intrust  to  it  also  the  function 
of  crediting  schools  on  the  basis  in  each  case  of  an  examination 
of  the  actual  success  in  college  of  the  candidates  indorsed  by  that 
school. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  to  the  board  was  given  authority 
to  accredit  any  school  whose  graduates  already  in  college  had, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  done  satisfactory  work  in  their  studies 
and  been  desirable  members  of  the  college  community.  Such 
an  accredited  school  would  be  privileged  to  certify  a  student  as 
"fit  for  college "  and  to  certify  further  to  what  extent  he  had  done 
the  particular  kinds  of  preparatory  work  required  for  the  various 
units  of  the  board's  schedule.  The  new  work  of  the  board 
would  be  to  obtain  annually,  or  less  often,  records  from  the  dif- 
ferent colleges  of  their  students  classified  as  Satisfactory  or  Un- 
satisfactory. These  records  the  board  would  sort  out  in  accord- 
ance with  its  lists  of  secondary  schools  and  their  indorsed 
graduates.  Some  hours'  computation  of  percentages  would  com- 
plete the  work.  The  work  of  college  admission  committees  would 
be  to  treat  the  certificates  from  accredited  schools  precisely  as 
they  now  treat  the  certificates  of  the  College  Entrance  Examina- 
tion Board.  The  work  of  the  accredited  school  would  be  to  secure 
and  fill  out  the  general  certificates  of  fitness  for  college  and  the 
special  certificate  of  having  taken  courses  qualified  to  fulfill  such 
and  such  particular  admission  specifications.  Students  not  cer- 
tificated by  their  schools  and  students  from  schools  not  accredited 
by  the  board  would  be  examined  as  now. 

We  would  have,  that  is,  neither  of  the  conventional  admission 
systems,  but  a  rigorous,  continuous,  and  absolutely  impartial 
examination  of  each  school  on  the  basis  of  its  actual  work  in  fur- 
nishing candidates  who  demonstrated  their  fitness  for  college  by 
their  work  in  college. 

Such  a  system  would  encourage  boys  and  girls  who  were  in 
the  truest  sense  fit  for  college  to  go  there,  for  the  fundamental 


1 82  Educational  Administration 

certificate  would  be  the  outcome,  not  of  a  complex  computation 
of  what  particular  species  of  disciplines  the  pupil  had  undergone 
but  of  the  judgment  of  the  teachers  who  knew  him  best  that  he 
was  really  fit  for  college.  The  award  of  this  general  certificate 
would  encourage  many  students  of  first-rate  capacity  and  promise 
who  lacked  some  of  the  particular  preparation  demanded  by  a  col- 
lege to  proceed  to  secure  it.  A  college  education  would  become 
less  the  consequence  of  early  parental  decision  and  more  the  con- 
sequence of  demonstrated  capacity.  The  award  of  the  general 
certificate  would  also  encourage  the  colleges  to  admit  on  proba- 
tion a  student  of  excellent  promise  who,  by  some  accident  of 
fortune,  had  not  taken  the  college  preparatory  course  in  high 
school;  for  they  could  then  do  so  without  elaborate  special  legis- 
lation and  without  incurring  the  reproach  of  lowering  standards. 
The  standard  of  capacity  would,  in  such  cases,  be  as  high  as  ever 
and  as  high  as  anywhere. 

Such  a  system  would  improve  the  work  of  the  secondary 
schools  by  setting  a  higher  standard  of  attainment  and  at  the 
same  time  abandoning  prescriptive  interference.  The  main  duty 
of  the  high  schools  is  to  train  boys  and  girls  to  be  capable  and 
intelligent  men  and  women.  They  and  the  public  which  supports 
them  are  willing  to  accept  also  the  responsibility  of  fitting  for 
college  the  small  minority  of  their  students  who  will  go  on  to  an 
academic  degree;  but  they  ought  not  to  be  asked  to  fit  students 
primarily  for  an  arbitrary  set  of  examinations.  With  such  a 
task,  they  cannot  be  expected  to  resist  the  temptation  to  give 
up  a  large  part  of  the  last  two  years  to  specific  coaching  for 
the  process  of  examination  taking.  The  proportion  of  college 
students  who  go  on  to  professional  courses  is  far  greater  than  the 
proportion  of  high  school  students  who  go  on  to  a  college  course, 
yet  the  colleges  would  think  it  an  insane  arrangement  if  they  had 
to  fit  students  for  elaborate  and  arbitrary  examinations  in  phys- 
iology, chemistry,  bacteriology,  and  the  like,  or  in  the  psychol- 


The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations     183 

ogy  of  religion,  ecclesiastical  history,  church  law,  and  Hebrew. 
The  examination  disease  can  be  eliminated,  and  with  an  actual 
raising  of  standards,  if  a  school's  fitness  to  prepare  for  college 
is  measured  by  the  actual  fitness  of  the  students  it  prepares. 

Such  a  method  of  accrediting  is  obviously  just  to  schools. 
Now  that  a  perfectly  trustworthy  body  exists  to  receive  reports 
from  all  colleges,  no  school  can  complain  if  it  is  denied  credit 
until  the  records  of  its  graduates  improve.  It  is  also  just  to 
individuals,  so  far  as  any  system  which  the  colleges  would  be 
willing  to  operate  can  be.  Occasionally  an  able  candidate  who 
happens  to  have  gone  to  an  inefficient  school  or  to  have  been 
misjudged  by  his  teachers,  will  have  to  run  the  risk  of  proving 
his  ability  by  the  unfair  test  of  arbitrary  examinations,  but  at 
present  every  able  candidate  has  to  run  this  risk.  Occasionally, 
an  able  candidate  will  be  held  back  a  year  longer  than  he  ought 
by  over  cautious  teachers,  but  a  few  years  will  demonstrate  to 
those  high  school  teachers  who  do  not  already  know  it  that  success 
in  college  is  dependent  on  capacity  ten  times  as  much  as  upon 
mere  amount  of  high  school  training,  and  they  will  soon  abandon 
the  false  notion  that  they  can  maintain  the  credit  of  their  school 
by  holding  back  pupils.  They  will  never  abandon  it  under  the 
present  examination  system;  for  under  such  a  condition  it  is  true; 
quantity  of  drill  is  a  means  of  securing  high  standings  in  arbitrary 
examinations.  The  present  system  is  a  paradise  for  stupid  boys 
— with  clever  tutors.  A  sagacious  tutor  can  get  a  hundred  boys 
into  college,  not  one  of  whom  he  would  be  willing  to  certify  to  as 
fit  to  succeed  there. 

Such  a  system  is  rational  because  it  measures  the  ability  of 
schools  to  fit  for  college,  not  their  ability  to  forearm  students 
against  the  twin  cataclysms  of  preliminary  and  final  examina- 
tions. It  puts  the  premium  on  capacity  and  right  habits  of  in- 
tellectual work,  rather  than  on  the  mass  of  information  held  in 
solution  at  a  given  week.     It  avoids  the  dangers,  possible  under 


184  Educational  Administration 

the  ordinary  certificating  systems,  of  misjudgment  of  schools  by 
inadequate  or  eccentric  inspection.  It  measures  directly  and  ex- 
actly the  fact  we  wish  to  measure.  .  .  . 

Finally,  such  a  system  would  be  established  through  a  natural 
modification  of  the  function  of  an  already  existing  organ  through 
an  easy  extension  of  the  powers  of  the  present  board.  No  new  ma- 
chinery and  only  the  simplest  legislation  is  required.  The  only 
important  change  would  be  to  add  to  the  present  duties  and 
powers  of  the  board  the  duty  of  rating  schools  by  the  success  in 
college  of  the  students  they  had  vouched  for  and  the  power  to 
accept  from  schools  of  a  given  rating  a  certificate  that  John  Doe 
"is  fit  for  college,"  and  a  certificate  that  John  Doe  "has  done 
work  equivalent  to  that  recommended  by  the  Middle  States 
board  for  English  i,  English  2,  History  i,"  etc.,  etc.  The  col- 
leges which  approve  the  system  would  vote  simply  to  accept  the 
board's  examinations  of  schools  as  they  now  accept  its  examina- 
tions of  individual  students.  The  work  of  the  board  and  of 
college  admission  committees  would  be  lightened. 

Of  the  many  administrative  advantages  of  the  plan,  and  of  the 
possibility  of  unity  of  action  amongst  colleges  throughout  the 
country  on  the  basis  of  a  scheme  so  safe  and  yet  so  plastic,  I  do 
not  care  to  speak,  at  least  at  this  time.  The  system  proposed  is 
rational,  just  and  practical.  It  positively  encourages  the  right 
students  to  go  to  college  instead  of  making  laborious,  but  futile 
efiforts  to  keep  a  few  incompetents  out.  On  these  facts  alone  I 
rest  my  case. 

Tables  62,  63,  64,  and  65  show  for  each  individual  the  relation 
between  entrance  standing  and  college  standing.  Horizontal 
position  denotes  the  rank  in  entrance  (the  median  of  the  highest 
eleven  marks  obtained).  Vertical  position  denotes  the  rank  in 
college  studies  (the  average  of  the  five  highest  marks  obtained) — 
in  Senior  year  in  Table  62,  in  Junior  year  in  Table  63,  etc.    Each 


The  Inefficiency  of  College  Entrance  Examinations     185 

figure  entered  in  the  table  means  so  many  students.  Thus  in 
Table  62  the  i  at  the  upper  left-hand  corner  means  that  one  stu- 
dent scoring  60  in  entrance  scored  4  in  the  college  work  of  Senior 
year.  The  other  i  in  the  same  column  means  that  one  student 
scoring  60  in  entrance  scored  21  in  college  work.  The  i  in  the  next 
vertical  column  means  that  one  student  scoring  61  in  entrance 
scored  24  in  college  work.  The  vertical  column  under  70  would 
read:  Of  10  students,  each  ranking  70  in  entrance  examinations, 
one  ranked  15  in  the  college  work  of  Senior  year,  one  16,  four  18, 
one  19,  one  21,  one  22,  and  one  27. 

The  values  60,  61,  62,  etc.,  up  to  95  of  the  horizontal  scale,  are 
directly  obtained  from  the  entrance  marks,  which  are  given  on 
the  ordinary  scale  of  from  icx>  down.  The  values  4,  5,  6,  up  to 
30  of  the  vertical  scale,  are  obtained  from  the  college  records  of 
A  B  C  D  and  F  by  taking  A  =  6,  B  =  4,  C  =  3,  D  =  i  andF  =  o.i 
Thus  30  =  five  As,  28  =  four  As  and  one  B,  27  =  four  As  and  one 
C,  26  =  three  As  and  two  Bs,  25  =  three  As,  one  B  and  one  C, 
or  four  As  and  one  D,  etc.,  etc. 

•  A  =  io,  B  =  7,  C  =  s,  D  =  2,  and  F=o  would  perhaps  have  been  juster. 


Table  62 
Relation  o^  Standing  in  Entrance  Examinations  to  Standing  in  College — Senior  Yeak 
60  65  70  75  80  85  90  95 


' 

— 1 

■■ 

— 1 

/ 

/ 

] 

1 

/ 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

1 

1 

I 

J 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

I 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

1 

I 

/ 

1 

I 

/ 

1 

1 

/ 

/ 

f 

/ 

J 

] 

1 

1 

1 

/ 

J 

J 

I 

3 

20 
1\ 
11 
II 
l\ 
?5 
?6 
Z7 
1% 
29 
30 

Table  63 
Relation  of  Standing  in  Entrance  Examinations  to  Standing  in  College — Junior  Year 
eo  65  70  75  80    85         -90  95 


G 

/ 

7 

/ 

/ 

8 

9 

I 

1 

10 

/ 

1 

11 

? 

2 

1 

12 

13 

/ 

1 

1 

1 

1+ 

J 

I 

I 

15 

/ 

I 

1 

IG 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

1 

2 

] 

1 

1 

1 

1 

17 

5 

J 

I 

3 

I 

18 

/ 

/ 

J 

1 

1 

1 

19 

/ 

4 

3 

1 

1 

20 

f 

1 

5 

/ 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

?l 

1 

/ 

1 

1 

2 

1 

?? 

/ 

/ 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

Th 

, 

24 

/ 

J 

1 

1 

? 

1 

I 

1 

?5 

I 

1 

I 

26 

/ 

1 

I 

27 

28 

/ 

3 

3 

2 

I 

I 

29 

30 

/ 

/ 

l\ 

I 

1 

1 

I 

L 

1 

\n 

186 


Tadle  64 
Relation  of  Standing  in  Entrance  Examinations  to  Standing  in  College — Sophomore  Year 
60  65  70  75  80  85  90  95 


1 

1 

/ 

■ 

1 

- 

z 

3 

- 

4 

1 

5 

/ 

1 

e 

7 

2 

J 

8 

/ 

1 

1 

1 

9 

1 

2 

2 

10 

/ 

1 

2 

1 

- 

11 

J 

2 

\Z 

1 

1 

1 

13 

I 

r 

I 

1 

1 

I 

J 

14 

/ 

I 

/ 

3 

15 

1 

/ 

1 

5 

I 

1 

16 

1 

; 

2 

I 

I 

1 

1 

17 

1 

2 

1 

1 

18 

/ 

1 

J 

1 

1 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

19 

/ 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

20 

/ 

2 

1 

2 

4 

21 

1 

1 

2 

1 

11 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

I 

- 

11 

1 

2 

24 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

25 

1 

1 

26 

1 

3 

I 

4 

2 

27 

1 

28 

1 

1 

J 

J 

1 

1 

1 

I 

29 

30 

_ 

I 

I 

2 

1 

1 

Table  65 
Relation  of  Standing  in  Entrance  ExAraNATioNS  to  Standing  in  College — Freshman  Year 
60  65  70  75  80  85  90  95 


s. 

— 

~ 

"~ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

~~ 

-" 

"" 

4 

/ 

/ 

5 

/ 

/ 

- 

6 

/ 

? 

1 

? 

7 

~ 

1 

/ 

8 

/ 

1 

- 

9 

/ 

/ 

? 

/ 

1 

10 

,? 

/ 

/ 

- 

II 

/ 

/ 

/ 

J 

/ 

1 

1? 

/ 

1 

I 

f. 

/ 

I 

1 

I 

1?^ 

~ 

/ 

1 

I 

J 

/ 

/ 

. 

- 

14 

I 

/ 

2 

J 

/ 

/ 

2 

I 

\J_ 

15 

1 

? 

/ 

? 

/ 

2 

1 

16 

/ 

? 

/ 

I 

1 

/ 

1 

2 

17 

? 

? 

/ 

? 

/ 

? 

1 

IK 

— 

— 

/ 

! 

' 

~ 

■ 

\! 

I 

! 

4 

1 

1 

n 

— 

' 

~ 

1 

~ 

~ 

? 

t 

,7 

1 

?0 

"~ 

/ 

2 

? 

1 

3 

2 

I 

1 

?l 

,' 

I 

/ 

/ 

? 

I 

,7 

I 

?? 

/ 

1 

~ 

I 

/ 

I 

! 

7^ 

t 

I 

? 

1 

! 

?4 

— 

~ 

~" 

~ 

~ 

/ 

I 

? 

I 

1 

?^ 

— 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

?fi 

~ 

~ 

^ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~" 

r 

1 

I 

I 

1 

1 

7! 

~" 

~ 

~ 

~ 

1 

?« 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

1 

1 

I 

71 

"~ 

~ 

30 

1 

2 

/ 

\l_ 





187 


§  1 7-  The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree 

In  view  of  the  frequent  discussions  and  proposals  with  respect 
to  the  course  of  study  for  the  bachelor's  degree  in  American 
colleges,  it  seems  desirable  to  present  the  facts  concerning  the 
actual  courses  taken  by  representative  students.  Admiration 
of  a  set  of  printed  requirements  is  misguided  if  in  fact  they  are 
not  followed;  and  criticism  of  follies  which  a  given  scheme  is 
supposed  to  encourage  is  wasted  if  in  fact  it  does  not  produce 
them. 

I  therefore  give  in  the  tables  that  follow  (Tables  66-75)  the  ac- 
tual composition  of  the  work  done  for  the  A.  B.  degree  by  391 
men  students  graduating  in  1909  ^ — 21  at  Columbia,  36  at  Bow- 
doin,  42  at  Cornell,  50  at  Harvard,  49  at  Princeton,  20  at  Stan- 
ford, 38  at  Wesleyan,  40  at  Williams,  and  95  at  Yale;  also  for 
22  women  at  Wellesley.  These  individuals  were  all  chosen  at 
random,  being  the  first  in  alphabetical  order. 

The  tables  give  for  each  student  separately  the  thousandths 
of  his  total  course  ^  devoted  to: 

1.  Latin,  Greek  and  Semitic 

2.  German,  French,  Spanish  and  Italian 

3.  English 

4.  Philosophy,  Psychology,  Logic  and  Ethics 

*  For  the  original  data  from  Columbia,  Cornell,  Princeton  and  Stanford,  I  am 
indebted  to  Mr.  F.  P.  Keppel,  Dean  of  Columbia  College.  For  those  from  Yale, 
I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  C.  H.  Judd,  Director  of  the  School  of  Education  of  the 
University  of  Chicago.  The  other  data  I  owe  to  the  courtesy  of  the  administra- 
tive officers  of  the  several  institutions. 

^  Approximately.  The  number  of  points  made  in  each  subject  was  decided,  not 
by  their  sum  in  every  case,  but  by  the  total  degree  requirement  or  the  average  of 
their  sums  for  all  the  students  reported  from  the  college  in  question.  This  is  in  the 
end  fairer,  but  as  a  result  the  sum  of  the  numbers  in  a  row  may  not  total  to  exactly 
one  thousand. 

x88 


The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree     189 

5.  History,  Economics,  Government  and  Sociology 

6.  Physics  and  Chemistry 

7.  Biological  Sciences 

8.  Other   Natural   Sciences 

9.  Mathematics 

.  10.  Music   and   Art. 

In  these  tables  each  horizontal  line  represents  the  work  for  the 
bachelor's  degree  of  one  individual.  The  career  he  expects  to 
follow  is  stated  where  it  is  known.  Each  entry  represents  the 
number  of  thousandths  of  the  "hours"  or  "points"  required  in  all 
for  the  degree  which  the  individual  at  the  left  of  the  entry  gave 
to  the  subject  at  the  top  of  the  column  in  which  the  entry  is. 

Thus  the  first  line  of  the  Bowdoin  table  (Table  66,  on  page  190) 
reads:  Individual  No.  i,  intending  to  be  a  lawyer,  earned  72 
thousandths  of  his  points  in  ancient  languages,  54  in  modern 
foreign  language,  263  in  English,  and  so  on. 

I  am  convinced  that  a  careful  study  of  these  individual  cur- 
ricula is  the  best,  and  perhaps  an  indispensable,  introduction  to 
any  scientific  study  of  the  college  course.  It  will  be  well  to  ex- 
amine them  one  by  one  with  specific  questions  in  mind,  such  as: 
Which  are  apparently  bad  combinations?  How  do  the  combina- 
tions at  Harvard,  under  a  system  of  free  election,  but  within  the 
non-professional  studies,  differ  from  those  in  the  other  colleges 
save  Stanford?  How  do  the  Stanford  combinations,  under  a 
system  where  the  student  chooses  a  major  subject,  and  the  head 
of  that  department  in  large  measure  chooses  the  courses  for  the 
student,  differ  from  those  at  Harvard  on  the  one  hand  and  at  the 
other  colleges  on  the  other  hand?  How  far  do  students  avail 
themselves  of  professional  options,  when  such  are  offered,  as  at 
Columbia  and  Stanford  and,  to  some  degree,  at  Cornell?  How 
much  specialization  was  there  under  the  regulations  in  force  in 
these  colleges  in  1905-9?     How  much  "scattering"  was  there? 


igo 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   66 

BOWDOIN 


c 

c 

>. 

0 

B 

"0 

^ 

ij 

% 

fLt 

u 

t 

ji 

c 

< 

0 

■fci) 
a 
W 

t 

a 

"o 

m 

0 

I 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

law 

72 

S4 

263 

54 

354 

8t 

81 

27 

3 

27 

318 

290 

54 

163 

81 

27 

72 

3 

" 

72 

24s 

263 

54 

190 

54 

72 

ed. 

27 

4 

** 

72 

81 

263 

54 

218 

54 

27 

36 

127 

ed. 

27 

5 

*' 

163 

290 

54 

163 

54 

36 

127 

ed. 

54 

6 

teaching 

lOO 

381 

236 

81 

27 

27 

7 

" 

381 

290 

109 

109 

72 

8 

" 

300 

154 

54 

218 

54 

27 

54 

dr. 

54 

9 

" 

163 

290 

54 

218 

54 

136 

72 

ed. 

27 

10 

medicine 

127 

163 

290 

54 

54 

72 

med. 

250 

II 

" 

272 

127 

27 

109 

81 

81 

72 

med. 

250 

12 

" 

163 

181 

136 

109 

81 

72 

med. 

250 

13 

" 

163 

i8i 

54 

381 

27 

181 

dr. 

54 

14 

" 

27 

435 

263 

54 

54 

54 

72 

ed. 

54 

IS 

? 

127 

109 

318 

163 

136 

54 

81 

27 

i6 

" 

72 

327 

209 

27 

163 

109 

27 

72 

17 

" 

72 

272 

263 

54 

54 

218 

72 

i8 

'* 

127 

327 

236 

54 

190 

54 

18 

19 

" 

272 

209 

54 

81 

163 

8i 

72 

20 

172 

272 

290 

54 

127 

54 

27 

21 

72 

272 

290 

54 

272 

32 

" 

36 

272 

209 

54 

300 

27 

36 

ed. 

54 

23 

" 

163 

3i8 

54 

218 

54 

27 

27 

72 

ed. 

27 

24 

chemist 

72 

272 

181 

27 

272 

127 

dr. 

54 

25 

" 

72 

318 

54 

136 

300 

27 

27 

ed. 

54 

26 

engineering 

109 

163 

181 

27 

54 

272 

63 

154 

dr. 

81 

27 

electrician 

72 

272 

236 

27 

136 

136 

54 

54 

ed. 

27 

28 

forestry 

127 

2l8 

290 

27 

27 

81 

54 

27 

72 

ed. 

54 

29 

manufacturing 

72 

381 

181 

54 

190 

54 

72 

ed. 

54 

30 

" 

272 

209 

54 

245 

136 

72 

31 

" 

72 

381 

209 

54 

109 

109 

72 

32 

express 

36 

218 

209 

27 

381 

8i 

27 

27 

36 

33 

banker 

318 

327 

127 

109 

45 

127 

34 

business 

27 

190 

290 

54 

245 

54 

27 

72 

ed. 

54 

35 

undertaker 

14s 

272 

181 

54 

54 

190 

54 

36 

journalist 

27 

272 

290 

54 

272 

72 

Also  9  for  each  student  in  hygiene. 

dr.  =  Drawing;  ed.=: Education;  med.  ^ Medicine. 


The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  tJie  A.  B.  Degree     191 


TABLE  67 
Columbia 


J 

a 

1 

i 

•a 
0 

'^ 

^ 

M 

i 

J 

i 

a 

15 

.a 

J3 

"o 

^ 

rt 

t: 

3 

< 

M 

cu 

S 

»< 

IS 

0 

S 

< 

U 

I 

a 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

I 

80 

lOO 

I7S 

300 

175 

133 

so 

SO 

j,i 

3 

100 

2SO 

117 

267 

lOO 

100 

3 

50 

22s 

87 

SO 

so 

a 

SO 

50 

500  engineering 

4 

2t7 

125 

ISO 

SO 

217 

133 

33 

25 

33 

5 

133 

367 

83 

7S 

SO 

83 

3i 

50 

42 

250  law 

6 

so 

so 

83 

SO 

SO 

67 

67 

83 

ii 

42 

500  architecture 

7 

lOO 

22s 

100 

100 

67 

67 

SO 

a 

250  law 

8 

383 

67 

83 

100 

75 

67 

67 

SO 

so 

9 

83 

100 

233 

ISO 

283 

67 

100 

10 

117 

ISO 

117 

50 

150 

117 

so 

SO 

250  law 

II 

so 

200 

183 

7S 

200 

64 

SO 

17 

250  law 

13 

433 

100 

117 

ISO 

67 

33 

17 

13 

SO 

100 

83 

100 

SO 

so 

100 

3i 

500  medicine 

14 

ISO 

217 

300 

IS8 

133 

67 

SO 

15 

SO 

233 

233 

100 

100 

67 

50 

33 

so 

100  law 

16 

208 

IS8 

100 

75 

100 

100 

SO 

17 

250  law 

17 

100 

i3i 

ISO 

SO 

ISO 

67 

67 

33 

250  law 

18 

SO 

2S 

83 

100 

100 

3i 

67 

267 

3  SO 

19 

SO 

I7S 

167 

183 

83 

33 

33 

Si 

SO 

250  law 

30 

SO 

167 

83 

50 

SO 

117 

83 

500  engineering 

21 

SO 

208 

142 

83 

142 

so 

67 

Zi 

60 

250  law 

33 

100 

83 

100 

SO 

67 

167 

SO 

500  medicine 

Also  33  for  each  student  in  gymnasium. 


N 


102 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   68 
Cornell 


i 

< 

a 

■6 

0 

J3 

c 

u 

Pi 

1 

s 

1! 

B 

Pi 

m 

5 

0 

to 

c 

1 

I 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

I 

law 

no 

141 

26s 

94 

203 

47 

47 

83 

3 

" 

31 

180 

102 

344 

47 

47 

234  law 

3 

" 

no 

30S 

141 

375 

47 

4 

** 

70 

94 

164 

367 

94 

78 

31  law 

5 

" 

94 

94 

180 

141 

453 

47 

31 

6 

" 

180 

172 

47 

461 

78 

7 

" 

63 

188 

23 

273 

63 

31 

63 

47 

234  law 

8 

" 

125 

188 

63 

273 

78 

258  law 

9 

** 

47 

211 

70 

578 

31 

10 

law  or  teaching 

203 

234 

47 

47 

117 

30s 

II 

teaching 

183 

47 

94 

94 

47 

86 

47 

391 

47 

13 

" 

188 

477 

350 

31 

13 

" 

70 

438 

70 

133 

180 

16 

78 

14 

" 

55 

281 

78 

16 

125 

508 

15 

" 

133 

78 

485 

133 

31 

102 

47 

31  a 

i6 

" 

359 

242 

149 

94 

211 

47 

17 

** 

203 

125 

47 

31 

516 

47 

47 

31 

i8 

** 

94 

117 

70 

203 

375 

94 

125 

19 

(d) 

313 

94 

39 

no 

70 

164  a  125 

30 

teaching  or  ? 

2ig 

164 

31 

23 

133 

39 

321 

31 

273 

172 

94 

47 

141 

172 

78 

47 

33 

94 

211 

no 

391 

47 

39 

78 

33 

' 

156 

227 

250 

47 

23 

47 

47 

16 

63 

16  a 

34 

47 

8 

695 

47 

94 

23  b 

35 

"i 

211 

547 

188 

31 

36 

no 

1 88 

141 

47 

391 

31 

78 

31 

23 

^S 

medicine 

188 

47 

86 

196 

219 

16 

297  medicine 

" 

16 

125 

117 

23 

78 

234 

149 

23 

47 

297 

39 

(( 

16 

149 

47 

47 

258 

133 

47 

39 

31 

297   " 

30 

63 

no 

141 

125 

117 

149 

125 

31 

" 

47 

117 

94 

47 

1 80 

227 

78 

297   " 

33 

chemist 

8 

758 

63 

78 

23  b 

33 

" 

47 

727 

70 

78 

23  b 

34 

" 

47 

775 

94 

55 

23  b 

35 

** 

70 

47 

766 

63 

86 

23  b 

36 

'< 

141 

758 

94 

I2S 

23  b 

37 

dyer 

149 

70 

23 

125 

383 

23 

78 

23  c      .   . 

38 

manufacturing 

78 

141 

23 

125 

26s 

78 

23  b  188  engineenng 

39 

*' 

70 

258 

23 

531 

16 

no 

40 

" 

10 

47 

336 

47 

336 

47 

63 

141 

41 

painter 
business 

94 

329 

117 

94 

78 

55 

16 

31  a  47  b 

43 

63 

336 

47 

23 

55 

117 

188 

47 

a = Architecture.    b=Drawing.    c  =  Unknown;  records  as  M.  A.     (d)  =  Supervisor  of  Drawing. 


The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree     193 


TABLE   6g 
Hakvaro 


5 
1 

1 

1 

i 

n 

0 

1 

i 

< 

• 

I 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

X 

235 

118 

29 

471 

29 

59 

a 

176 

88 

59 

412 

88 

118 

3 

118 

59 

353 

382 

59 

4 

676 

147 

*35 

5 

118 

118 

59 

59 

xx8 

xx8 

294 

59 

6 

176 

26s 

147 

471 

59 

59 

I 

118 

176 

147 

206 

X18 

29 

294 

1x8  a.  29  en. 

294 

118 

118 

29 

353 

59 

29 

88 

59 

9 

235 

147 

617 

29 

59  ed. 

10 

176 

176 

235 

X18 

176 

59 

88  m.  88  en. 

II 

13 

88 
59 

382 
88 

88 

176 
59 

147 
235 

59 

676  en. 

13 

176 

147 

176 

59 

176 

29  m.  xx8  a.  59  m. 

14 

118 

59 

1*7 

88 

529 

ii 

29 

118 

206 

xx8 

294 

59 

59 

29 

xx8 

j6 

118 

176 

176 

118 

441 

17 
18 

176 

176 

59 
118 

29 
59 

186 
4x2 

59 

59 

1x8 

xx8 

19 

30 

59 

29 
118 

176 
147 

59 
59 

59 

88 
559 

X18 

412  en. 
29  m. 

31 
33 
33 

34 

35 

118 

118 

59 

176 

235 

353 
26s 
118 

206 
235 
176 
X18 
235 

88 
235 
412 
598 
26s 

59 
59 
59 

59 

235  ed. 

36 

§*> 

1x8 

176 

235 

59 

29 

176 

29  en. 

^l 

59 

26s 

176 

294 

294 

59 

38 

147 

118 

176 

1x8 

294 

88  en. 

39 
30 

^iS 

176 
598 

59 
147 

59 
47X 

176 

59 

X76 

31 

382 

176 

88 

26s 

59 

32 

29 

147 

176 

59 

176 

59 

1x8 

29 

xxS 

29  m.  1x8  en. 

33 
34 

176 

471 
176 

26s 
147 

X76 

59 
559 

59 

35 

59 

n8 

324 

147 

294 

99 

29 

88 

36 

235 

471 

353 

88 

59 

H 

59 

59 

147 

1x8 

441 

59 

59 

99 

59 

38 
39 

59 

324 
235 

147 
382 

§S 

471 
324 

X18 

40 

118 

147 

26s 

88 

324 

59 

59  ar. 

41 

147 

147 

29 

353 

59 

235 

59  a. 

43 
43 

59 

412 
118 

59 
59 

59 
176 

324 
6x8 

59 

59 

205 

44 
45 

46 

% 
49 

294 

59 
265 

235 

23s 

59 

118 

1x8 
206 

118 
676 

59 

88 

235 

147 

59 

1x3 
382 

471 
X18 
676 
647 

147 
59 

59 

29 

29 
58 

59 

59 
118 

X47  en. 

50 

176 

X76 

88 

353 

59 

29 

176 

29  m.  2Q  en. 

Notes. — a.  =  Architecture    and  landscape    architecture;    ar.  =  Archjeology;    ed.  =  Education; 
en. = Engineering;  m.^ Mining. 


194 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   70 
Princeton 


ja 

u 

-s 

i 

U 

'c^ 

m 

ji 

3 

1 

"to 
c 
W 

S 

JS 

yo 

n 

1 
0 

<; 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

I 

177 

177 

129 

48 

315 

48 

24 

64 

2 

298 

32 

153 

73 

315 

48 

64 

3 

323 

32 

299 

48 

145 

48 

64 

4 

177 

177 

153 

48 

315 

48 

64 

5 

177 

177 

8i 

48 

339 

48 

64 

6 

202 

129 

8i 

48 

31S 

73 

24 

113 

7 

177 

129 

250 

48 

218 

48 

64 

48 

8 

177 

129 

153 

48 

363 

48 

64 

9 

226 

81 

56 

121 

387 

48 

64 

10 

202 

loS 

153 

48 

303 

48 

24 

64 

24 

II 

177 

129 

129 

48 

339 

48 

24 

64 

24  a 

12 

177 

81 

153 

97 

31S 

48 

113 

13 

177 

129 

56 

48 

31S 

24 

113 

169  b 

14 

177 

177 

153 

48 

315 

48 

64 

IS 

177 

129 

177 

291 

97 

48 

64 

16 

177 

81 

177 

48 

315 

48 

24 

64 

48  a 

17 

202 

129 

105 

^Z 

363 

^l 

64 

18 

177 

129 

323 

48 

145 

48 

113 

19 

177 

81 

153 

73 

339 

48 

24 

64 

24  c 

20 

177 

81 

153 

97 

339 

48 

24 

64 

21 

226 

430 

56 

48 

48 

48 

24 

64 

48  d 

22 

202 

loS 

81 

48 

339 

48 

24 

113 

33 

274 

loS 

347 

97 

48 

48 

64 

24 

177 

129 

299 

48 

145 

48 

24 

48 

64 

35 

177 

145 

129 

48 

315 

97 

73 

64 

24 

24  c 

26 

177 

105 

105 

48 

315 

48 

64 

27 

177 

8i 

177 

48 

121 

121 

194 

64 

28 

177 

32 

los 

48 

315 

97 

97 

64 

48  c 

29 

177 

32 

105 

48 

315 

97 

97 

64 

48  d 

30 

250 

105 

299 

48 

97 

48 

24 

48 

64 

31 

226 

32 

129 

73 

315 

97 

24 

24 

64 

32 

468 

274 

48 

48 

48 

64 

33 

i8s 

105 

299 

43 

73 

73 

64 

48 

34 

250 

32 

177 

43 

339 

48 

24 

64 

35 

177 

323 

177 

4S 

121 

48 

24 

64 

36 

370 

32 

339 

48 

48 

113 

H 

177 

32 

177 

48 

315 

48 

24 

113 

24 

24  c 

38 

250 

177 

347 

97 

48 

64 

39 

177 

129 

153 

48 

363 

48 

64 

40 

177 

105 

153 

48 

316 

97 

24 

64 

41 

177 

81 

81 

48 

339 

73 

48 

64 

24 

48  d 

42 

177 

129 

105 

97 

315 

73 

64 

24  c 

43 

177 

129 

323 

73 

169 

48 

64 

64 

24 

44 

177 

129 

177 

48 

315 

48 

24 

64 

45 

177 

81 

153 

97 

339 

48 

64 

24  a 

46 

202 

129 

105 

97 

339 

48 

64 

47 

274 

32 

IS3 

48 

339 

48 

24 

64 

48 

177 

los 

347 

48 

145 

48 

64 

48 

48  d 

49 

177 

los 

S6 

48 

315 

145 

48 

24 

64 

a = Biblical  literature,    b  =  Graphics,  graphic  statics  and  geodesy.   c=Geodesy.    d= Architecture. 


The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree     195 


TABLE  71 
Stantoro 


gi 

J 

i 

"3 

.a 

J 

•3 

0 

» 
^ 

a 
e 

I 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

2S 

I3» 

33 

140 

140 

372 

91 

3 

148 

47 

lOI 

8S 

194 

31 

326 

(>) 

3 

SO 

SO 

83 

670 

41 

83 

4 

121 

48 

242 

32 

532 

24  d 

5 

14s 

234 

597 

6 

17 

83 

140 

42 

331 

74 

17 

273 

17 

I 

149 

240 

612 

ii 

132 

S8 

331 

83 

322 

9 

i6i 

339 

274 

274 

10 

SO 

174 

33 

iss 

SO 

25 

273 

II 

108 

298 

2S 

331 

74 

33 

17  ed. 

13 

32 

127 

167 

32 

262 

48 

48 

262 

13 

109 

16 

225 

16 

597 

16  d 

14 

31 

240 

78 

23 

326 

318 

15 

157 

471 

83 

107 

149 

17 

16 

33 

58 

240 

6S3 

% 

17 

232 

140 

2S 

240 

2S 

273 

25  d 

147 

31 

4" 

16 

225 

163 

19 

140 

78 

62 

380 

16 

2S 

287 

30 

8 

24 

24 

97 

137 

202 

25 

i8s 

32 

15 

242  ed. 

d.  =  Drawing.    ed.  =  Education. 
1  Also  23  art,  16  drawing  and  i6  ed. 
gymnasium. 


Also  for  all  students  save  s.  7i  14  and  18,  from  8  to  so  in 


196 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  72 
Wellesley 


C 

►3 

►3 

ji 

V 

1 

t 

w 

jl 

u 

c 

< 

a 

K 

"o 

0 

ji 

rt 

s 

< 

X 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

130 

III 

56 

III 

222 

i8s 

56 

74 

S6 

19 

93 

3 

463 

260 

56 

56 

S6 

74 

19 

74 

3 

130 

333 

HI 

241 

56 

74 

19 

93 

4 

74 

III 

S6 

222 

407 

56 

74 

19 

74 

5 

3S2 

260 

S6 

III 

130 

74 

19 

74 

6 

74 

407 

83 

194 

S6 

S6 

74 

19 

93 

I 

i8s 

296 

56 

III 

74 

74 

93 

19 

74 

S6ed. 

379 

S6 

157 

56 

74 

19 

74 

9 

537 

167 

56 

56 

56 

74 

19 

HI 

10 

74 

148 

56 

167 

241 

S6 

185 

19 

93 

II 

260 

130 

204 

56 

74 

III 

74 

19 

93 

S6ed. 

12 

352 

167 

56 

130 

56 

i8s 

19 

93 

13 

185 

352 

S6 

III 

56 

74 

74 

19 

74 

S6ed. 

14 

74 

260 

167 

S6 

S6 

56 

185 

56 

19 

93 

56  ed. 

15 

352 

130 

56 

56 

56 

167 

74 

19 

93 

56  ed. 

16 

74 

148 

S6 

74 

74 

537 

19 

74 

^S 

296 

333 

56 

74 

56 

74 

19 

93 

56  ed. 

74 

426 

56 

167 

167 

74 

19 

74 

19 

287 

250 

S6 

III 

185 

74 

19 

74 

30 

74 

352 

241 

S6 

56 

S6 

S6 

74 

93 

19 

93 

31 

130 

352 

56 

74 

S6 

74 

93 

19 

93 

56  ed. 

32 

204 

389 

56 

74 

56 

74 

III 

19 

74 

The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree   197 


TABLE   73 
Wesleyan 


d 

2 

•s 

i 

«; 

a 

S 

t 

1 

s 

■S 

1 

•i 

0 

1 

5 

s 

I 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

teaching 

133 

ISO 

117 

S9 

17 

142 

133 

ISO 

67 

3 

" 

67 

117 

133 

92 

267 

100 

so 

17 

183 

3 

" 

133 

ISO 

ICO 

I2S 

33 

32s 

133 

83 

133 

4 

" 

67 

SO 

842 

159 

a 

67 

100 

83 

67 

S 

" 

133 

217 

233 

142 

a 

83 

67 

67 

6 

" 

ISO 

300 

133 

log 

100 

67 

17 

67 

I 

** 

133 

183 

183 

100 

50 

100 

267 

67 

8 

" 

167 

ISO 

I7S 

159 

67 

ISO 

33 

117 

9 

" 

133 

4SO 

175 

42 

83 

87 

33 

67 

10 

333 

200 

233 

100 

87 

SO 

33 

II 

" 

217 

200 

I7S 

83 

67 

83 

ii 

33 

67 

13 

" 

200 

200 

I7S 

109 

67 

83 

50 

67 

13 

" 

133 

406 

242 

159 

33 

83 

17 

67 

M 

" 

67 

133 

42s 

92 

33 

17 

133 

50 

67 

IS 

law 

67 

167 

200 

75 

3SO 

SO 

17 

67 

16 

100 

183 

233 

75 

292 

67 

SO 

117 

iS 

133 

150 

22s 

75 

200 

117 

1° 

17 

57 

67 

100 

200 

192 

317 

33 

83 

50 

67 

19 

iii 

217 

I  25 

75 

267 

183 

ISO 

ao 

67 

283 

IS9 

59 

167 

67 

67 

17 

73 

31 

minbtry 

133 

133 

iiS 

225 

67 

67 

17 

33 

67 

33 

" 

133 

lOO 

333 

142 

67 

67 

50 

83 

67 

33 

medicine 

183 

250 

142 

92 

33 

83 

200 

44 

34 

chemist 

IS8 

258 

83 

42 

83 

442 

50 

142 

35 

" 

67 

109 

142 

33 

392 

100 

SO 

67 

36 

science 

^M 

ISO 

100 

117 

67 

83 

217 

67 

% 

business 

67 

83 

209 

175 

183 

117 

117 

17 

67 

** 

133 

200 

1 59 

92 

33 

292 

17 

117 

39 

" 

67 

100 

133 

225 

133 

83 

75 

33 

67 

30 

" 

133 

2ii 

250 

92 

133 

117 

133 

67 

31 

" 

67 

317 

125 

142 

142 

133 

SO 

67 

33 

*' 

iii 

150 

117 

109 

67 

300 

ii 

167 

33 

" 

67 

317 

225 

7S 

ISO 

83 

67 

50 

67 

34 

philanthropy 

250 

167 

167 

75 

67 

192 

33 

117 

35 

insurance 

133 

217 

no 

59 

167 

183 

67 

3i 

67 

36 

civil  service 

•  133 

317 

109 

125 

92 

117 

50 

33 

67 

37 

publishing 

67 

67 

37S 

42 

267 

59 

83 

44 

38 

journalism 

133 

SO 

32s 

75 

3SO 

25 

67 

198 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   74 
Williams 


1 

a 
M 

ii 

IS 

&4 

.2 

u 

Biol.  Sci. 

Other  Sci. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

I 

law 

267 

100 

217 

125 

ISO 

67 

i3 

67 

2 

" 

7S 

217 

27S 

25 

242 

67 

3i 

67 

3 

" 

192 

167 

208 

100 

142 

108 

33 

67 

4 

" 

167 

100 

233 

217 

92 

33 

50 

67 

5 

" 

183 

200 

100 

125 

192 

67 

33 

100 

67 

6 

undecided 

167 

100 

258 

100 

107 

67 

33 

50 

67 

7 

" 

467 

100 

192 

100 

25 

67 

33 

67 

8 

" 

SO 

27S 

217 

75 

142 

108 

33 

75 

67 

9 

" 

183 

217 

2S8 

133 

100 

50 

67 

10 

" 

142 

2SO 

83 

50 

175 

167 

33 

100 

67 

II 

" 

208 

117 

167 

75 

192 

67 

33 

100 

67 

12 

*' 

208 

100 

108 

50 

242 

108 

33 

100 

67 

13 

teaching 

408 

117 

167 

217 

67 

33 

67 

14 

" 

283 

so 

117 

25 

75 

283 

SO 

50 

67 

IS 

233 

217 

117 

75 

217 

67 

33 

50 

67 

16 

adv.  study 

167 

so 

S8 

50 

417 

67 

33 

»7 

"    " 

217 

22s 

75 

92 

67 

33 

25 

67 

18 

medicine 

183 

233 

117 

25 

100 

200 

125 

SO 

67 

19 

*' 

SO 

308 

200 

75 

142 

200 

67 

20 

engineering 

50 

167 

200 

25 

75 

283 

50 

25 

167 

21 

" 

183 

117 

117 

192 

67 

50 

50 

233 

22 

chemist 

183 

SO 

S8 

75 

208 

SO 

100 

233 

23 

M.  I.  T.  (1) 

183 

167 

117 

.  50 

50 

200 

75 

183 

24 

varnish 

183 

117 

333 

75 

192 

ISO 

67 

as 

manufacturing 

SO 

167 

183 

25 

192 

250 

142 

26 

shoes 

SO 

267 

167 

150 

lOO 

33 

S8 

27 

publishing 

167 

ISO 

200 

50 

283 

125 

50 

67 

28 

library  supplies 

167 

167 

I7S 

12s 

133 

67 

33 

67 

29 

broker 

117 

117 

133 

75 

142 

192 

33 

50 

67 

30 

travel 

SO 

283 

I2S 

75 

167 

33 

125 

67 

1  M.  I.  T.  equals  "study  at  Mass.  Inst,  of  Tech." 


Tlie  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree    199 


TABLE   7S 
Vale 


1 

ja 

.a 
» 

5 
333 

6 

eq 

% 
0 

•s 
s 

3 

< 

I 

a 

3 

4 
SO 

7 

8 

9 

10 

I   law 

217 

133 

167 

50 

a 

100 

167 

167 

317 

ii 

100 

SO 

3 

317 

217 

100 

167 

17 

l^ 

a 

a 

4 

50 

50 

ISO 

67 

S17 

so 

83 

so 

5 

167 

200 

SO 

417 

150 

so 

6 

SO 

so 

200 

83 

467 

SO 

83 

so 

7 

267 

267 

so 

367 

so 

17 

so 

8 

SO 

250 

ISO 

83 

283 

83 

50 

9 

100 

200 

133 

133 

283 

100 

33 

so 

33 

10    " 

SO 

183 

183 

117 

283 

SO 

33 

67 

17 

II   unknown 

SO 

133 

183 

83 

333 

ISO 

67 

13 

SO 

100 

200 

67 

2SO 

183 

67 

133 

13 

SO 

300 

200 

133 

ISO 

50 

17 

100 

14 

317 

117 

100 

83 

100 

67 

117 

100 

17 

IS 

100 

217 

100 

300 

100 

67 

100 

16 

367 

267 

83 

117 

100 

17 

83 

^l 

233 

200 

17 

SO 

367 

100 

133 

18 

17 

so 

233 

183 

367 

100 

83 

so 

19 

100 

183 

217 

233 

100 

17 

20      " 

350 

183 

167 

83 

150 

117 

31        " 

200 

100 

133 

67 

317 

17 

'2° 

32        " 

283 

2SO 

ii 

317 

17 

83 

17 

23 

367 

233 

167 

SO 

83 

SO 

so 

24 

100 

ISO 

83 

467 

100 

83 

SO 

25 

ISO 

133 

267 

100 

183 

50 

17 

33 

SO 

33 

26 

133 

ISO 

100 

83 

317 

SO 

17 

83 

SO 

17 

^l 

50 

183 

200 

50 

183 

183 

33 

100 

28 

200 

100 

167 

133 

283 

17 

83 

17 

29 

100 

250 

100 

167 

217 

83 

33 

30 

ISO 

100 

217 

167 

2SO 

100 

33 

31 

SO 

333 

ISO 

300 

100 

17 

SO 

33 

Hi 

ISO 

100 

247 

100 

SO 

SO 

a 

33 

250 

183 

167 

ISO 

so 

17 

67 

SO 

34 

100 

lOO 

167 

SO 

ISO 

183 

67 

233 

35 

ISO 

133 

ISO 

100 

3  so 

'' 

83 

36 

2ii 

67 

83 

100 

Hi 

100 

17 

100 

37 

233 

SO 

200 

33 

433 

83 

38 

SO 

ISO 

67 

467 

100 

17 

117 

SO 

39 

117 

167 

283 

SO 

3  SO 

17 

100 

17 

40   teaching 

m 

200 

167 

100 

167 

SO 

17 

33 

SO 

41 

200 

283 

183 

117 

217 

SO 

SO 

42 

17 

183 

267 

117 

83 

250 

67 

a 

17 

43   literature  and  education 

100 

267 

250 

100 

167 

so 

83 

44   publishing 

so 

183 

233 

83 

267 

100 

17 

67 

45   medicine 

233 

233 

167 

183 

100 

17 

33 

67 

17 

46 

100 

133 

217 

250 

ISO 

67 

33 

SO 

47 

ISO 

300 

83 

267 

SO 

17 

33 

SO 

17 

48   medical  missionary 

100 

150 

167 

167 

200 

117 

SO 

SO 

a  =  ArchsEology  67.     b  =  Arch«eology  33. 


200 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE    75 
Yale  (continued) 


^ 

a 
t-3 
•6 

^ 

d 

0 

e 

V 

U 

•5 

C/2 

CO 

M 

1 

a 

< 

0 

'2 

.a 

s 

0 

rt 
S 

< 

2 
S 

I 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

49 

ministry 

183 

SO 

117 

133 

3SO 

117 

217 

50 

" 

100 

ISO 

117 

ISO 

ISO 

so 

so 

283 

SI 

" 

ISO 

100 

300 

117 

100 

SO 

SO 

ISO 

52 

" 

283 

183 

133 

83 

183 

SO 

33 

100 

53 

missionary 

so 

100 

183 

100 

317 

100 

17 

33 

SO 

SO 

54 

" 

117 

ISO 

200 

100 

250 

100 

17 

33 

SO 

55 

journalism 

267 

317 

133 

100 

83 

SO 

33 

100 

56 

" 

233 

200 

183 

SO 

217 

83 

33 

57 

" 

100 

SO 

167 

17 

SSO 

100 

SO 

17 

58 

banker 

300 

217 

3i 

267 

SO 

17 

83 

so 

59 

" 

83 

133 

283 

SO 

250 

17 

133 

SO 

6o 

" 

50 

183 

233 

67 

367 

17 

83 

SO 

6i 

« 

100 

ISO 

217 

33 

400 

100 

62 

bonds 

100 

ISO 

167 

83 

250 

SO 

17 

83 

100 

63 

broker 

133 

200 

117 

350 

SO 

17 

100 

17 

17 

64 

" 

ISO 

ISO 

167 

SO 

333 

17 

133 

SO 

65 

" 

133 

200 

100 

117 

317 

17 

100 

17 

83 

66 

<■ 

83 

133 

67 

83 

383 

SO 

33 

33 

33 

67 

steel  (or  bonds) 

ISO 

SO 

283 

SO 

233 

SO 

17 

100 

SO 

17 

68 

broker 

150 

so 

250 

83 

300 

133 

17 

69 

life  ins. 

SO 

250 

133 

433 

83 

17 

SO 

SO 

70 

geol. 

SO 

117 

33 

200 

183 

so 

267 

117 

71 

arch. 

100 

3  SO 

117 

ISO 

100 

133 

67 

72 

" 

83 

167 

217 

333 

17 

100 

SO 

33 

b 

73 

florist 

100 

ISO 

117 

300 

150 

117 

83 

74 

consul 

50 

117 

83 

117 

467 

100 

33 

b 

75 

lumber 

SO 

3i 

200 

67 

500 

SO 

17 

83 

76 

" 

SO 

250 

250 

100 

217 

100 

17 

77 

oil 

SO 

100 

183 

100 

400 

17 

117 

33 

78 

manufacturing 

183 

250 

SO 

3SO 

SO 

17 

83 

50 

P 

SO 

ISO 

283 

SO 

383 

so 

100 

SO 

b 

80 

" 

SO 

250 

100 

SO 

2SO 

100 

33 

167 

81 

" 

133 

ISO 

183 

400 

17 

17 

100 

83 

" 

250 

100 

117 

117 

3SO 

17 

83 

b 

|3 

" 

100 

250 

100 

233 

100 

17 

50 

SO 

§* 

« 

100 

3SO 

SO 

SO 

167 

ISO 

33 

100 

85 

" 

267 

67 

267 

SO 

317 

33 

17 

83 

86 

<< 

100 

100 

167 

100 

267 

100 

17 

67 

67 

87 

business 

200 

SO 

117 

183 

350 

100 

88 

" 

100 

SO 

217 

100 

383 

17 

83 

SO 

89 

" 

100 

133 

217 

167 

233 

SO 

83 

33 

90 

100 

233 

100 

33 

367 

SO 

33 

40 

50 

91 

" 

ISO 

250 

117 

317 

17 

100 

SO 

17 

92 

** 

SO 

183 

233 

83 

317 

SO 

17 

SO 

93 

railroad 

200 

67 

217 

67 

317 

SO 

83 

94 

317 

SO 

167 

300 

17 

167 

95 

steamship 

100 

133 

250 

33 

283 

SO 

17 

100 

b 

b= Archaeology  33. 


The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree    201 

In  the  case  of  which  group  of  studies — (a)  the  languages  and 
literatures,  (b)  the  science  of  human  affairs  and  (c)  the  natural 
sciences — does  the  amount  of  study  bear  the  lowest  ratio  to  the 
significance  of  the  study  for  modern  civilization?  What  evidence 
is  there  that  the  accidental  dominance  of  some  personal  view  has 
made  certain  departments  specially  strong  or  has  framed  regula- 
tions requiring  certain  studies  far  more  than  is  usually  the  case 
and  so  has  led  to  a  notably  larger  attention  to  one  or  another 
study  in  the  one  institution  than  is  given  to  it  by  students  in 
general? 

I  note  here  two  samples  of  the  facts  which  the  reader  can  get 
in  response  to  such  questions: 

Thus,  Table  76  gives  certain  objective  measures  of  the  fre- 
quency of  notable  specialization  in  the  case  of  these  students. 


TABLE  76 

SPECIALIZATION 

Percentages  Which  Those  Spending  over  Half  of  Their  Course  for  the 
A.  B.  Degree  in  Studying  Certain  Groups  of  Subjects  Are  of  the  Total 
Number  Attaining  the  A.  B.  Degree 


LanR. 
and 
Lit. 

Social.     1        y^ji 
^.^n           Natural 
Gov"-      1    Sciences 

Engi- 
neering 

Medicine 

Archi- 
tecture 

Bowdoin 

Columbia 

Cornell 

Harvard 

61 
24 
14 
32 
31 

55 
53 
38 
26 

ID 
16 

5 
3 

6 

17 
6 

20 
5 

I 

10 

2 
25 

10 
see  note  a. 

see  note  a. 
see  note  b. 

5 

Princeton 

Stanford  .  .        ... 

Wellesley 

Wesleyan 

Williams 

Yale 

(a)  If  the  combination  of  the  "  hist.  econ.  gov."  group  with  law  is  counted  as 
one  group,  and  if  the  combination  of  science  and  medicine  is  counted  as  one 
group,  we  have  added  40%  at  Stanford,  and  70%  at  Cornell,  of  the  former  sort 
of  specialization;  and  12%  at  Cornell  of  the  latter  sort. 

(b)  One  case,  5%,  for  music  and  art. 


202  Educational  Administration 

The  above  data  of  Table  76  give  evidence  (i)  that  specializa- 
tion toward  a  profession  will  occur  when  it  is  permitted,  as  at 
Stanford,  Columbia  and  Cornell;  (2)  that  free  election  (but 
within  non-professional  courses)  increases  specialization  outside 
of  languages  and  literatures  (Harvard);  (3)  that,  in  the  other 
colleges,  specialization  by  candidates  for  the  A.  B.  degree  is 
chiefly  in  languages  and  literatures,  a  specialization  artificially 
cultivated  by  the  requirements  in  these  subjects  for  entrance 
and  graduation.  The  student  is  far  less  able  to  find  out  in  the 
secondary  school  his  interests  and  abilities  in  the  sciences  of 
nature  and  human  affairs  and,  save  at  Harvard,  is  less  free  to 
devote  much  time  to  them  in  colleges. 

As  a  sample  measurement  of  the  extent  of  apparent  ^^scatter- 
ing "  we  may  take  for  each  college  the  percentage  of  graduates  who 
did  not  devote  at  least  one  fifth  of  the  total  degree  requirement 
to  any  one  of  the  following:  (i)  Ancient  language,  (2)  Modern 
foreign  languages,  (3)  English,  (4)  Philosophy,  etc.  (5)  History, 
(6)  Economics,  (7)  Government  and  public  law,  (8)  Physics  and 
chemistry,  (9)  Biological  science,  (10)  Other  natural  sciences, 
(11)  Mathematics,  (12)  Art  and  music,  (13)  Education,  (14)  Law, 
(15)  Medicine,  (16)  Engineering,  (17)  Architecture. 

The  percentages  are  given  in  Table  77. 


TABLE  77 

The  Frequency  of  "Scattering" 

Bowdoin o 

Columbia o 

Cornell o 

Harvard 12 

Princeton 46 

Stanford o 

Wellesley o 

Wesleyan 8 

Williams 5 

Yale 7 


The  Studies  Actually  Taken  for  the  A.  B.  Degree    203 

Of  these  cases  of  apparent  diffusion  over  half  are  individuals 
each  giving  three  tenths  of  the  degree  requirement  to  history, 
economics,  government  and  public  law;  many  of  the  others  repre- 
sent conceivably  closely  related  work  {e.  g.  of  the  six  Harvard 
cases,  Nos.  10,  26,  28  and  50). 


PART  IV 
STUDIES  OF  SCHOOL  ACHIEVEMENTS 


§  1 8.  Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products 

Any  educational  effect  or  achievement  is  a  change  in  some 
individual  or  group.  Such  a  change  is  demonstrated  by  the 
attainment  of  some  condition  or  status  known  not  to  have  existed 
prior  to  the  action  of  the  educational  force  in  question.  It  is 
measured  by  the  comparison  of  the  condition  without  and  that 
with  the  action  of  the  force.  We  prove  the  existence  of  and 
measure  changes  in  human  beings  as  elsewhere  by  comparing  two 
static  conditions. 

These  conditions  are  known  to  us  only  by  their  objective  mani- 
festations, their  productions  of  observable  facts,  sums  done,  books 
read,  lies  not  told,  illness  not  suffered,  and  so  on  through  the 
endless  list  of  facts  produced  or  prevented. 

Observation  of  an  individual's  life  leads  us  to  define  and  rrieas- 
ure  his  condition  or  status  in  any  particular  in  one  of  two  ways, 
either  (i)  as  an  amount  of  some  thing  or  quality  or  power,  or 
(2)  as  a  position  in  comparison  with  the  conditions  of  other  men. 

Thus  a  boy,  in  penmanship,  may  be  measured  (i)  as  writing 
a  "  barely  legible"  hand,  or  (2)  as  being  next  to  the  worst  boy  of 
a  hundred  of  his  age.  Thus  a  girl,  in  knowledge  of  the  German 
language,  may  be  measured  as  (i)  able  "  to  read  easy  German  at 
sight"  and  as  knowing  a  certain  1600  words,  a  certain  120  con- 
structions and  a  certain  system  of  forms,  or  (2)  as  having  the 
best  acquaintance  with  German  of  any  first  year  student. 

That  a  pupil  can  ''add  and  subtract  with  integers,"  or  can  "read 
words  of  one  syllable,"  or  can  cook  edible  bread — these  are  all 
measurements  by  the  absolute  amount  of  something,  however 
vaguely  and  crudely  the  amount  is  defined.  That  a  pupil  is  a 
"good  student,"  or  that  he  was  graded  "excellent"  in  history,  or 
that  a  man  of  science  is  in  the  upper  five  hundred  of  the  Cat- 

207 


2o8  Educational  Administration 

tell  list,  or  that  a  poet  is  "  eminent" — these  are  all  measurements 
by  relative  position. 

Educational  measurements  of  the  former  sort  can  be  improved 
by  defining  exactly  and  objectively  what  is  meant  by  any  given 
measure  so  that  we  can  all  mean  the  same  thing  by  it,  and  by 
getting  aids  to  convenient  and  precise  identification  of  any  condi- 
tion or  status  as  equivalent  to  some  exactly  defined  measure. 

Educational  measurements  of  the  latter  sort  can  be  improved 
by  defining  the  relative  positions — e.  g.  as  29th  from  the  top  of 
1000 — and  by  defining  the  group  in  relation  to  which  the  fact  is 
placed — e.  g.  as  twelve-year-old  children  in  New  York  City  in 
1910,  or  as  compositions  written  in  the  first  year  of  high  school 
in  an  hour's  time  without  preparation  or  assistance,  or  as  "  the 
thousand  most  eminent  men  of  science  in  America." 

Educational  measurements  of  the  latter  sort,  though  of  great 
value  when  properly  treated,  are  essentially  inferior  to  those  of 
the  former  sort.  Other  things  being  equal,  reference  to  some 
objective  scale  or  series  of  standard  amounts  of  the  thing  in 
question,  is  much  preferable  to  reference  to  a  given  place  in  a 
total  series  of  miscellaneous  samples  of  the  thing.  And  one 
chief  task  of  the  science  of  education  is  to  work  out  units  and 
scales  for  educational  forces  and  products  as  the  physical  sciences 
have  done  for  mass,  temperature,  work,  electrical  potential, 
electrical  energy,  and  the  like. 

As  a  sample  of  the  methods  and  results  of  such  studies  of  the 
means  of  measuring  educational  achievement,  I  quote  from  a 
monograph  on  Handwriting  by  one  of  the  present  authors. 

The  Construction  of  a  Scale  for  Quality  of  Handwriting  in  the  case 
of  Children  in  Grades  j  to  8 

If  one  selects  from  children's  written  work  1000  samples  ranging 
from  the  best  to  the  worst  handwriting  found  in  grades  5  to  8 


Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products         209 

and  tries  to  rank  these  1000  samples  in  order  of  merit  for  hand- 
writing, one  finds  that  he  cannot  make  1000  such  ranks.  Some 
of  the  handwritings  will  be  indistinguishable  in  "goodness"  or 
"quality"  or  "merit."  Nor  can  one  make  100  such  ranks.  Nor 
can  one  make  40.  One  can  make  about  20,  but  if  he  so  ranks  the 
samples  a  number  of  times  he  gets  substantially  the  same  aver- 
age result  as  he  gets  when  he  ranks  them  a  number  of  times  in 
10  or  II  groups.  To  get  an  individual's  judgment  of  the  relative 
merits  of  the  1000  samples  it  is  sufficient  to  have  him  rank  them 
in  10  or  II  groups  three  or  four  times.  If  he  grades  in  10  groups 
and  tries  to  make  the  differences  in  "goodness"  or  "quality"  or 
"merit"  all  equal — to  inake,  that  is,  the  sample  he  puts  in  the 
highest  group  (call  it  11)  as  much  superior  to  those  in  the  next 
highest  group  (call  it  10)  as  the  latter  are  to  those  he  puts  in  the 
second  from  the  highest  group  (call  it  9),  etc.,  etc. — we  have  in 
the  average  ^  result  of  his  groupings  his  judgment  of  the  relative 
merits  of  the  samples  in  a  specially  convenient  form.  For  in- 
stance, if  he  grades  sample  217  as  in  group  5  three  times,  as  in 
group  4  once,  and  as  in  group  6  once,  and  grades  sample  218  as 
in  group  6  three  times,  in  group  5  once  and  in  group  7  once,  he 
judges  218  to  be  "i"  better  than  217,  "i  "  being,  in  the  indi- 
vidual's judgment,  one  tenth  of  the  difiFerence  between  group  i 
and  group  11. 

If  thirty  or  forty  individuals  chosen  from  competent  judges  of 
handwriting  thus  judge  the  1000  samples,  the  average  ^  of  all 
their  gradings  of  a  sample,  gives  approximately  its  relative  merit 
in  the  judgment  of  competent  judges  in  general.  If  they  grade 
sample  317  in  group  3  two  times,  in  group  4  five  times,  in  group 
5  thirteen  times,  in  group  6  thirteen  times,  in  group  7  five  times, 
and  in  group  8  two  times,  their  average  or  median  grade  for  it  is 
5.5.  If  their  average  or  median  grade  for  sample  318  is  6.4,  they 
esteem  318  as  .9  better  than  317.    The  .9  means,  in  their  judg- 

^  Except  for  certain  factors  which  will  be  described  on  page  226. 


2IO  Educational  Administration 

ment,  nine  tenths  of  one  tenth  of  the  difference  between  grade 
I  and  grade  ii. 

If  now  from  all  the  looo  samples  we  could  find  some  which 
were  graded  exactly  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  and  11,  by  the 
average  or  median  ^  judgment  of  30  or  40  competent  judges,  each 
grading  the  set  into  groups  i  to  1 1  by  what  he  thinks  are  equal 
steps  in  merit,  we  would  have  a  very  useful  scale  of  merit  in 
handwriting.  It  would  include  all  grades  from  the  worst  to  the 
best  and  would  proceed  by  what  were,  by  the  average  competent 
opinion,  equal  steps.  Or,  if  we  could  find  some  graded  1.5,  2.4, 
3.3,  4.2,  5.1,  6.0,  6.9,  7.8,  8.7,  9.6,  and  10.5,  we  would  have  a  scale 
nearly  as  useful.  It  would  not  be  so  likely  to  include  the  very 
worst  and  very  best  samples,  but  would  proceed  by  equal  steps, 
as  before. 

The  scale  which  I  shall  proceed  to  describe  was  obtained  by  a 
method  in  principle  the  same  as  the  aboye. 

Such  a  scale  could  be  got  in  a  different  way,  as  follows:  Suppose 
competent  judges  to  compare  each  sample  with  every  other, 
stating  in  each  case  which  was  better.  If  then  we  picked  out 
samples  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  such  that  a  was  judged  better  than  b 
just  as  often  as  b  was  judged  better  than  c,  and  just  as  often  as 
c  was  judged  better  than  d,  and  so  on,  we  would  have,  in  samples 
a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  a  scale  by  equal  steps,  if  two  other  conditions  were 
fulfilled  by  them.  The  first  of  these  conditions  would  be  that  a 
should  not  be  judged  better  than  b  and  worse  than  b  equally 
often.  For  it  if  were,  a  would  be  equal  to  b,  b  to  c,  c  to  d,  and 
so  on,  and  we  would  have  no  extent  to  our  scale.  The  second 
of  these  conditions  would  be  that  a  should  not  always  be 
judged  better  than  b.  For,  if  it  were,  it  might  be  just  enough 
better  to  barely  be  so  judged,  or  it  might  be  very,  very  much 
better. 

Only  if  differences  are  not  always  noticed  can  we  say  that 

*  Except  for  certain  factors  which  will  be  described  on  page  226. 


Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products         2n 

differences  equally  often  noticed  are  equal.  But  if  we  had,  as 
a  result  of  the  judgments,  facts  like  those  below,  we  could  say 
that  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  represented  samples  of  writing  progressing 
by  equal  steps  of  difference  in  quality. 

looo  comparisons  of  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  being  made: 

a  was  judged  better  than  b  in  73  per  cent,  equal  to  b  in  1 1  per 
cent,  and  worse  than  b  in  16  per  cent  of  the  judgments. 

b  was  judged  better  ^an  c  in  73  per  cent,  equal  to  c  in  11  per 
cent,  and  worse  than  c  in  16  per  cent  of  the  judgments. 

c  was  judged  better  than  d  in  73  per  cent,  equal  to  b  in  11  per 
cent,  and  worse  than  b  in  16  per  cent  of  the  judgments,  and  so 
on  for  d-e,  e-f, n. 

The  scale  which  I  shall  describe  was  tested  throughout  by  this 
second  method.  The  two  methods  do  not  give  results  that  corre- 
spond exactly.  The  variations  follow  this  rule :  Judges  will  notice 
differences  between  poor  samples  when  they  compare  them  directly 
one  with  another  which  they  would  not  count  in  rating  them 
by  a  mental  scale.  For  example,  suppose  samples  a,  b,  c  and  d 
to  be  rated  10,  9,  3,  and  2  by  comparison  with  a  mental  scale  of 
eleven  grades  by  equal  steps.  The  percentage  of  judges  regarding 
10  as  better  than  9  will  be  smaller  than  that  regarding  3  as  better 
than  2. 

Since  we  get  two  different  scales  by  the  two  methods,  there 
are  four  alternatives.  We  may  adopt  one  or  the  other  or  combine 
them,  or  give  the  results  by  both  methods.  I  shall  take  the  latter 
alternative,  but  shall  at  this  point  present  only  the  scale  as 
derived  by  the  first  method.^ 

The  scale  given  here  is  then  a  scale  in  which  the  steps  of 
difference  are  equal  in  the  sense  of  being  called  equal  by  com- 
petent judges.  Equal  will  mean  just  this  in  the  following 
discussion. 

^  For  the  scale  as  derived  by  the  second  method  see  Section  12  of  The  Teachers' 
College  Record,  March,  1910. 


212  Educational  Administration 

The  Nature  of  the  Scale 

Pages  213  to  222  contain  or  rather  are  the  upper  part  of  the 
scale  for  merit  of  the  handwriting  of  children  of  grades  5  to 
8.  .  .  .  Each  set  of  samples  represents  a  point  on  this  scale.  The 
samples  on  page  213  are  of  quality  18  and  17;  the  samples  on 
page  214  are  of  quality  16;  the  samples  on  pages  215  and  216  are 
of  quality  15;  and  so  on,  as  far  as  quality  11.  I  show  also 
quality  5  (on  page  223)  and  the  quality  chosen  as  approximately 
zero  (on  page  224). 

The  use  of  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  and  17  for  these 
qualities  of  handwriting  means,  first  of  all,  that  14  is  as  much 
better  than  13,  as  13  is  than  12;  that  13  is  as  much  better  than  12, 
as  12  is  than  11,  and  so  on.  In  the  second  place  it  means  that 
quaHty  14  is  two  times  as  far  above  o  merit  in  handwriting  as 
quality  7  is;  that  quality  16  is  twice  as  far  above  o  merit  in  hand- 
writing as  quality  8  is,  and  so  on.  Zero  merit  is  defined  roughly 
as  writing  as  bad  as  sample  140  (see  page  224),  as  a  handwriting, 
recognizable  as  such,  but  of  absolutely  no  merit  as  handwriting. 
The  use  of  several  samples  under  one  quality  means  that  those 
samples  are  of  equal  merit.  The  full  scale  ^  includes  samples  of  as 
many  different  styles  as  could  be  obtained,  so  that  in  using  the 
scale  the  merit  of  any  sample  of  any  style  of  writing  can  be  quickly 
ascertained  by  comparison  with  the  scale.  The  full  scale  also  ex- 
tends in  actual  samples  by  children  from  nearly  the  worst  writing  ^ 
of  fourth-grade  children  (quality  5)  to  nearly  the  best  writing  of 
eighth-grade  children  (quality  17).  The  scale  thus  extends  from 
a  quality,  better  than  which  no  pupil  is  expected  to  produce,  down 
to  a  quality  so  bad  as  to  be  intolerable,  and  probably  almost  never 
found,  in  school  practice  in  the  grammar  grades. 

'  For  the  complete  scale,  see  The  Teachers  College  Record,  March,  1910,  in 
p.  II  ff. 

*In  a  formal  exercise  in  writing  at  their  "  natural  "  rate. 


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Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products         225 

If  one  had  a  finer  scale,  its  use  would  give  but  slightly  more 
accurate  results,  and  would  require  more  practice  and  more  time. 

Any  specimen  of  handwriting  is  measured  by  this  scale  by  put- 
ting it  alongside  the  scale,  as  it  were,  and  seeing  to  what  point  on 
the  scale  it  is  nearest.  If  one  wishes  to  measure  more  finely  than 
to  units,  he  can  add  or  subtract  a  fraction  according  as  the  sample 
to  be  measured  seems  better  or  worse  than  the  quality  of  the  scale 
to  which  it  is  nearest. 

The  sample  to  be  measured  should,  for  convenience,  be  exam- 
ined with  the  entire  scale  in  view.  If  the  scale's  samples  are 
arranged  in  order  on  a  table  or  against  a  wall,  the  examined 
sample  is  easily  compared  with  them.  The  measurer  then  decides 
what  quality  of  the  scale  the  sample  possesses  and  records  the 
measure.  The  measurer  should  be,  of  course,  careful  not  to 
decide  its  grade  because  of  its  likeness  in  style,  but  only  because 
of  its  likeness  in  quality  to  some  sample  of  the  scale.  If,  for  in- 
stance, one  has  a  pronounced  vertical  that  is  really  of  quality  18, 
one  must  not  call  it  quality  17,  because  it  is  in  style  more  like 
sample  141  than  like  the  sample  of  quality  18.  The  measure  may 
be  made  more  and  more  accurate  by  having  other  judges  also 
measure,  each  always  in  ignorance  of  the  ratings  given  by  the 
others.  In  default  of  other  judges,  the  measure  may  be  made 
more  accurate  by  rating  the  sample  two  or  three  times,  each  time 
in  ignorance  of  the  ratings  previously  given.  An  individual  may 
be -measured  more  accurately  by  using  several  samples  of  his 
writing,  each  being  rated  in  ignorance  of  the  ratings  given  to  the 
other   samples. 

The  Derivation  of  the  Scales 

I  shall  give  here  only  such  notes  as  are  likely  to  be  helpful  to 
any  one  who  is  stimulated  by  this  scale  to  construct  similar  scales 
for  other  educational  products.     The  principles  stated  here  for 


/ 


226  Educational  Administration 

a  scale  for  merit  in  handwriting  are  valid  for  other  educational 
products  as  well. 

To  construct  a  scale  by  which  to  measure  various  quahties 
(that  is,  amounts  of  merit)  in  handwriting  ranging  from,  say, 
X  to  x+y,  it  is  desirable  to  have  samples  of  quality,  not  only  of 
every  degree  from  x  to  x+y,  but  also  of  qualities  worse  than  x 
and  of  quahties  better  than  x+y.  The  reason  is  that  otherwise 
the  exact  values  of  samples  at  a;  or  x  plus  a  slight  amount  and 
samples  at  x-\-y  or  x+y  minus  a  slight  amount  cannot  be  directly 
measured,  but  only  inferred. 

For  example,  call  x  i  and  y  lo.  X+y  then  being  ii,  a:  or  i  is 
nearly  the  worst  and  x+y  or  ii  is  nearly  the  best  of  a  series  of 
samples,  ranging  continuously  from  x  to  x+y. 

If  now  any  one  is  required  to  fix  in  mind  ii  points  including 
X  (or  i)  and  x+y  (or  ii)  differing  each  from  the  next  by 
equal  amounts,  and  to  rate  each  of  the  samples  as  i,  2,  3, — 9,  10, 
or  II,  according  to  which  of  these  mentally  fixed  points  it  seems 
most  like,  he  can  err  by  rating  a  sample  as  2  or  3  when  it  is  really 
I,  but  cannot  err  by  rating  it  o  or  minus  i  when  it  is  really  i. 
Similarly  he  can  err  by  rating  it  9  or  10  when  it  is  really  11,  but 
cannot  err  by  rating  it  12  or  13. 

Unless  the  set  of  samples  to  be  rated  includes  some  samples, 
one,  two,  three,  and  even  four  grades  better  than  the  best  quality 
ix+y)  to  be  represented  in  the  final  scale  and  also  some  samples 
one,  two,  three  grades  worse  than  the  worst  quaHty  {x)  to  be  rep- 
resented in  the  final  scale,  one  cannot  get  the  values  of  x+y  and  x 
themselves  save  by  inference. 

Hence,  to  make  a  scale  for  the  handwritings  of,  say,  lo-year- 
old  school  children  conveniently,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  collec- 
tion of  samples  varying  in  quality  from  much  below  the  worst  to 
much  above  the  best  of  their  writings.  This  involves  the  use  of 
''unnatural"  samples,  which  may  seem  very  objectionable,  but 
which  as  a  matter  of  fact  does  little  or  no  harm. 


Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products         227 

In  the  case  of  a  scale  for  the  merit  of  English  compositions  by 
high  school  pupils  one  should  start  from  a  collection  of  compo- 
sitions ranging  by  small  gradations  from  compositions  much 
worse  than  the  worst  point  on  the  final  scale  is  to  be,  to  composi- 
tions much  better  than  the  best  point  on  the  final  scale  is  to  be. 
Here  the  extremely  bad  ones  may  be  obtained  by  artificial  con- 
struction, from  the  feeble-minded,  or  from  very  old  and  stupid 
grammar  school  children.  The  extremely  good  ones  may  be 
obtained  from  the  printed  or  manuscript  compositions  in  youth 
by   gifted   authors. 

To  get  samples  exactly  situated  at  points  differing  progressively 
by  equal  steps  requires  that  the  original  set  range  from  one  ex- 
treme to  the  other  by  very  sHght  gradations.  This  means  for 
practical  purposes  that  one  must  have  at  the  start  a  very  large 
number  of  samples.  After  these  have  been  graded  by  enough 
judges  to  rate  each  roughly,  only  those  which  are  near  the  points 
to  be  represented  by  the  scale  need  be  graded  further.  As  the 
value  of  each  sample  of  this  narrower  selection  is  determined 
more  exactly  by  further  judgments,  only  those  very  near  the 
points  to  be  represented  on  the  final  scale  need  be  preserved  for 
still  further  judgments;  and  so  on  till  the  values  of  enough  samples 
are  determined  to  the  degree  of  precision  required  for  the  scale 
itself. 

Points  on  the  scale  exactly  determined,  but  not  at  progressively 
equal  steps,  can  be  got  with  far  less  labor.  If,  for  example,  after 
a  single  rating  I  had  picked  samples  at  intervals  from  the  best 
to  the  worst  and  then  had  only  these  few  samples  rated  by  the 
twenty  to  seventy  judges,  the  value  of  each  could  have  been 
stated  nearly  as  exactly  as  is  the  case  on  the  samples  of  the  scale. 
But  there  would  form  a  series  like  17.33, 16.65, 16.28, 15.82, 15.40, 
15.47,  15.23,  14.95,  i4-7>  ^tc,  instead  of  the  approximate  17,  16, 
15,  15,  15,  15,  15,  14,  13,  13,  13,  etc.,  of  the  scale.  They  would 
have  served  the  purpose  of  a  scale  as  well  so  far  as  aiding  an  ob- 


228  Educational  Administration 

server  to  make  exact  measurements  which  any  other  observer 
could  verify,  and  to  report  them  unambiguously,  but  the  labor  of 
allowing  for  the  decimal  values  or  of  computing  measures  ex- 
pressed in  awkwardly  long  numbers  would  burden  each  person 
using  the  scale.  If  the  scale  were  designed  for  use  only  by  scientific 
investigators  of  education,  I  should  have  economized  in  respect  to 
the  number  of  samples  rated,  had  far  more  ratings  of  each  sample, 
and  presented  a  scale  of  very  exactly  determined  quahties  but 
at  irregular  intervals.  For  the  common  use  of  pupils,  teachers, 
and  supervisory  officers  a  less  precise  scale  by  approximately 
equal  steps  seemed  far  more  valuable. 

It  is  possible  that  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  differ- 
ence between  their  median  values  by  the  percentage  of  judges 
noticing  the  difference  is  preferable  to  the  determination  by  the 
amount  of  difference  between  the  median  values,  as  given  by 
judges  attempting  to  apply  to  each  a  scale  of  mentally  equal 
differences.    I  used  both  methods. 

In  general,  the  experience  in  constructing  this  scale  gives  great 
encouragement  to  the  hope  that  for  many  educational  facts,  units 
and  scales  may  be  invented  that  shall  enable  us  to  think  quanti- 
tatively in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  we  can  about  facts  of 
physics,  chemistry,  or  economics.  It  has  been  commonly  sup- 
posed that  the  great  complexity  of  such  facts  as  examination 
papers  in  spelling,  manifestations  of  interest  in  history,  acts  of 
^  moral  significance,  habits  of  industry,  essays,  poems,  inventions, 
replies  to  questions  demanding  logical  inferences,  and  other  like 
results  of  education,  prevents  the  samples  composing  any  one 
such  group  from  being  measured  by  any  one  linear  scale  at  all 
comparable  to  a  foot  rule  or  thermometer  or  galvanometer. 

It  is  true  that  some  judges  find  it  hard  to  judge  handwriting 
for  the  complex  of  legibility,  beauty,  ease,  "character,"  etc.,  into 
which  "quality"  or  "goodness"  or  "merit"  resolves  itself.  But 
none  of  them  found  it  impossible  to  do  so,  and  most  of  them  rated 


Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products         229 

the  writing  for  the  complex — "merit  or  goodness  in  your  opinion," 
as  readily  as  an  appraiser  would  rank  articles  of  sale  by  money 
price,  or  as  a  little  child  would  arrange  pieces  of  paper  in  the 
order  of  their  size  regardless  of  the  fact  that  some  were  squares, 
some  circles  and  some  triangles. 

The  entire  history  of  the  judgments  of  the  merit  of  handwriting 
supports  the  claim  that  if  a  number  of  facts  are  known  to  vary 
in  the  amount  of  anything  which  can  be  thought  of,  they  can 
be  measured  in  respect  to  it.  Otherwise,  I  may  add,  we  would 
not  know  that  they  varied  in  it.  Wherever  we  now  properly  use 
any  comparative,  we  can  by  ingenuity  learn  to  use  defined  points 
on  a  scale. 

Further  acquaintance  with  the  procedure  by  which  a  scale  for 
the  measurement  of  any  objective  educational  product  may  be 
derived  from  a  sufficient  number  of  ratings  by  expert  judges  may 
be  had  by  reading  Dr.  M.  B.  Hillegas'  account  of  "A  Scale  for 
the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Composition  by  Young 
People"  (Teachers'  College  Record,  Sept.,  191 2).  By  the  voice 
of  forty  experts  Sample  580  is  regarded  as  of  zero  or  "just  not 
any"  merit  as  English  writing  by  a  young  person  in  his  'teens. 

Quality  o. 

580.    Letter 

Dear  Sir:  I  write  to  say  that  it  aint  a  square  deal  Schools  is  I 
say  they  is  I  went  to  a  school,  red  and  gree  green  and  brown  aint 
it  hito  bit  I  say  he  don't  know  his  business  not  today  nor  yeater- 
day  and  you  know  it  and  I  want  Jennie  to  get  me  out. 

Sample  595  is  judged  to  be  better  than  sample  580  by  89.1  per 
cent  of  competent  judges  (202  in  number)  and  so,  by  virtue  of  a 
theory  of  the  distribution  of  judgments  well  known  to  psychol- 
ogists, is  recorded  as  differing  from  sample  580  by  1.83  times  the 


230  Educational  Administration 

P.  E.  (the  amount  of  difference  which  75  per  cent  of  the  judges 
would  discriminate  correctly). 

Qixality  1.83 

^g^.    My  Favorite  Book 

the  book  I  refer  to  read  is  Ichabod  Crane,  it  is  an  grate  book  and 
I  like  to  rede  it.  Ichabod  Crame  was  a  man  and  a  man  wrote 
a  book  and  it  is  called  Ichabod  Crane  i  like  it  because  the  man 
called  it  ichabod  crane  when  I  read  it  for  it  is  such  a  great  book. 

Sample  618  is  judged  to  be  better  than  sample  595  by  69.8  per 
cent  of  the  judges  and  so,  by  virtue  of  the  theory  just  referred  to, 
is  recorded  as  differing  from  595  by  .77  times  the  P.  E.;  and  con- 
sequently as  differing  from  zero  (sample  580)  by  1.83  P.  E.+.77 
P.  E.,  or  2.60  P.  E. 

Quality  2.60 

618.    The  Advantage  of  Tyranny 

Advantage  evils  are  things  of  tyranny  and  there  are  many 
advantage  evils.  One  thing  is  that  when  they  opress  the  people 
they  suffer  awful  I  think  it  is  a  terrible  thing  when  they  say  that 
you  can  be  hanged  down  or  trodden  down  without  mercy  and 
the  tyranny  does  what  they  want  there  was  tyrans  in  the  revolu- 
tionary war  and  so  they  thro  wed  off  the  yok. 

Sample  94  is  judged  to  be  better  than  sample  618  by  76.7  per 
cent  of  the  judges,  and  so  is  recorded  as  differing  from  sample 
816  by  1.09  P.  E.;  and  consequently  as  differing  from  the  zero 
of  the  scale  by  1.83  P.  E.+.77  P.  E.+1.09  P.  E.,  or  3.69  P.  E. 

Quality  3.69 

g4.    Sulla  as  a  Tyrant 
When  Sulla  came  back  from  his  conquest  Marius  had  put  him- 
self consul  so  Sulla  with  the  army  he  had  with  him  in  his  conquest 


Means  of  Measuring  Educational  Products  231 

seized  the  government  from  Marius  and  put  himself  in  consul 
and  had  a  list  of  his  encmys  printy  and  the  men  whoes  names 
were  on  this  list  we  beheaded. 

So  we  have  as  a  scale  so  far: 

Sample  580  as  o 

"        595  "  1.83 
618  "  2.60 

94  "  3-69 
In  a  similar  way  Sample  519  is  assigned  a  value  of  4.74;  sample 
534,  a  value  of  5.85;  sample  196,  a  value  of  6.75;  sample  221  a 
value  of  7.72;  and  so  on  for  the  balance  of  the  scale  not  presented 
here. 

5/p.     De  Quincy 

First:  De  Quincys  mother  was  a  beautifuul  women  and 
through  her  De  Quincy  inhereted  much  of  his  genius. 

His  running  away  from  school  enfluenced  him  much  as  he 
roamed  through  the  woods,  valleys  and  his  mind  became  very 
meditative. 

The  greatest  enfluence  of  De  Quincy 's  life  was  the  opium 
habit.  If  it  was  not  for  this  habit  it  is  doubtful  whether  we 
would  now  be  reading  his  writings. 

His  companions  during  his  college  course  and  even  before 
that  time  were  great  enfluences.  The  surroundings  of  De  Quincy 
were  enfluences.  Not  only  De  Quincy's  habit  of  opium  but  other 
habits  which  were  peculiar  to  his  life. 

His  marriage  to  the  woman  which  he  did  not  especially  care  for. 

The  many  well  educated  and  noteworthy  friends  of  De  Quincy. 

5;^4.    Flttellen 

The  passages  given  show  the  following  characteristic  of 
Fluellen:  his  inclination  to  brag,  his  professed  knowledge  of  His- 
tory, his  complaining  character,  his  great  patriotism,  pride  of  his 


232  Educational  Administration 

leader,  admired  honesty,  revengeful,  love  of  fun  and  punishment 
of  those  who  deserve  it. 

ig6.    Ichabod  Crane 

Ichabod  Crane  was  a  schoolmaster  in  a  place  called  Sleepy 
Hollow.  He  was  tall  and  slim  with  broad  shoulders,  long  arms 
that  dangled  far  below  his  coat  sleeves.  His  feet  looked  as  if 
they  might  easily  have  been  used  for  shovels.  His  nose  was  long 
and  his  entire  frame  was  most  loosely  hung  to-gether. 

221.    Going  Down  with  Victory 

As  we  road  down  Lombard  Street,  we  saw  flags  waving  from 
nearly  every  window.  I  surely  felt  proud  that  day  to  be  the 
driver  of  the  gaily  decorated  coach.  Again  and  again  we  were 
cheered  as  we  drove  slowly  to  the  postmasters,  to  await  the 
coming  of  his  majestie's  mail.  There  wasn't  one  of  the  gaily 
bedecked  coaches  that  could  have  compared  with  ours,  in  my 
estimation.  So  with  waving  flags  and  fluttering  hearts  we  waited 
for  the  coming  of  the  mail  and  the  expected  tidings  of  victory. 

When  at  last  it  did  arrive  the  postmaster  began  to  quickly 
sort  out  bundles,  we  waited  anxiously.  Immediately  upon  receiv- 
ing our  bundles,  I  lashed  the  horses  and  they  responded  with  a 
jump.  Out  into  the  country  we  drove  at  reckless  speed — every- 
where spreading  like  wildfire  the  news,  "Victory!"  The  exilera- 
ation  that  we  all  felt  was  shared  with  the  horses.  Up  and  down 
grade  and  over  bridges,  we  drove  at  breakneck  speed  and  spread- 
ing the  news  at  every  hamlet  with  that  one  cry  "Victory! "  When 
at  last  we  were  back  home  again,  it  was  with  the  hope  that  we 
should  have  another  ride  some  day  with  "Victory." 


§  19-  School  Achievebient  in  Arithmetic 

Dr.  C.  W.  Stone  ['08]  in  his  study  of  "  Arithmetical  Abilities 
and  Some  of  the  Factors  Determining  Them  "  made  a  study  of 
arithmetical  achievements  of  children  in  the  sixth  grade  in 
twenty-six  school  systems.  This  investigation  evaluated  the  re- 
sults secured  not  only  in  the  fundamental  operations  but  also 
in  reasoning.  All  of  the  tests  were  given  by  Dr.  Stone  himself 
under  conditions  as  nearly  identical  as  was  possible.  Great  care 
was  taken  in  securing  the  results  as  will  appear  from  the  follow- 
ing discussion  and  table. 

"The  scores  for  the  reasoning  problems  were  determined  from 
the  result  of  two  preliminary  tests — one,  giving  one  hundred 
sixth  grade  pupils  all  the  time  they  needed  to  do  the  problems  as 
well  as  they  could  in  the  order  as  printed;  and  another,  giving  one 
hundred  sixth  grade  pupils  all  the  time  they  needed  to  do  prob- 
lems as  well  as  they  could  in  the  reverse  order  from  that  as  printed. 
The  results  as  tabulated  below  in  Table  78  show  that  scores  for 
reasoning  problems  of  Grade-six  pupils  can  be  very  definitely  ar- 
ranged in  a  scale  on  the  basis  of  relative  difficulty.  Just  what 
the  scale  should  be  can  only  be  determined  by  determining  the 
form  of  distribution  and  the  location  of  the  zero  point.  From 
what  is  known  of  these  the  scale  of  weighting  shown  in  the  last 
column  of  Table  78  is  believed  to  be  the  best,  and  this  is  the  one 
employed  in  the  computations  of  this  study.  .  .  ." 

".  .  .  .  In  both  reasoning  and  fundamentals  the  scores 
used  as  a  measure  of  the  achievement  of  a  system  were  computed 
by  combining  the  scores  of  one  hundred  pupils.  Where  more  than 
one  hundred  pupils  were  tested,  the  papers  used  were  drawn  at 
random,  the  number  drawn  from  each  class  being  determined  by 
the  ratio  of  its  number  to  the  total  number  tested  in  the  system. 

233 


234 


Educational  A  d ministration 


Where  less  than  one  hundred  pupils  were  tested,  the  combined 
scores  made  were  raised  to  the  basis  of  one  hundred  pupils." 


TABLE   78 

PRELIMINARY  TESTS   IN  ARITHMETIC 

Reasoning — Unlimited  Time 

100  Different  Pupils  Tested  Each  Time 


Number  of 
Problems 

%  Reasoned 
Correctly 

%  Reasoned 
Correctly 

Average  % 
Reasoned 

Weight  Ac- 
cording to 
Average  % 
Correct 

Weight  Used 
as  Probably 

as  Printed 

as  Reversed 

'       Correctly 

the   Best 

I 

95 

92.6 

93-8 

I 

,       2 

86 

82.2 

84.1 

I  .  I 

3 

94 

89 

9I-S 

I 

4 

80 

83 

,         81. 5 

115 

S 

88 

86 

'         87 

I  .  I 

6 

69 

57-4 

■  63.2 

1-5 

1-4 

7 

70 

80 

75 

1-25 

1.2 

8 

29 

44 

36.5 

2.6 

1.6 

9 

19 

15-5 

17.2 

5-45 

2 

10 

24 

27.4 

25-7 

3-6 

2 

II 

17 

7-5 

'         12.3 

7.6 

2 

12 

7 

16.4 

II. 7 

8 

2 

Precautions  Observed  to  Make  the  Scoring  Accurate 

'  The  simplicity  of  the  tests  made  the  scoring  comparatively 
easy,  and  with  the  observance  of  the  following  precautions  it  is 
believed  that  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  was  attained,  (i)  In  so 
far  as  practicable,  all  the  papers  were  scored  by  a  single  judge — 
only  two  persons  being  employed  on  any  phase  of  the  work  for 
the  entire  twenty-six  systems;  (2)  each  problem  was  scored 
through  one  hundred  or  more  papers,  then  the  next  followed 
through,  etc.;  (3)  the  score  for  each  part  of  each  problem,  the 
errors,  etc.,  were  entered  on  a  blank  provided  with  a  separate 
column  for  each  item;  (4)  where  there  was  doubt  as  to  how  the 
score  should  be  made,  the  scorer  made  a  written  memorandum 


School  Achievement  in  Arithmetic  235 

of  how  the  case  was  finally  decided  and  this  memorandum  served 
as  the  guide  for  all  future  similar  cases." 

What  the  Scores  Measure 

"As  used  in  this  study  the  words  achievements,  products,  abili- 
ties, except  where  otherwise  qualified,  must  necessarily  refer  to  the 
results  of  the  particular  tests  employed  in  this  investigation. 
That  some  systems  may  achieve  other  and  possibly  quite  as 
worth-while  results  from  their  arithmetic  work  is  not  denied;  but 
what  is  denied  is  that  any  system  can  safely  fail  to  attain  good 
results  in  the  work  covered  by  these  particular  tests.  Whatever 
else  the  arithmetic  work  may  produce,  it  seems  safe  to  say  that 
by  the  end  of  the  sixth  school  year,  it  should  result  in  at  least 
good  ability  in  the  four  fundamental  operations  and  the  simple, 
everyday  kind  of  reasoning  called  for  in  these  problems.  It  does 
not  then  seem  unreasonable,  in  view  of  the  precautions  previ- 
ously enumerated,  to  claim  that  the  scores  made  by  the  respective 
systems  afford  a  reliable  measure  of  the  products  of  their  respec- 
tive procedures  in  arithmetic." 

The  following  tables  from  Dr.  Stone's  study  show  the  scores 
received  by  each  of  the  twenty-six  systems  tested  in  reasoning 
and  in  fundamentals  together  with  deviations  from  the  median 
score,  comparative  achievements  and  comparative  time  expendi- 
ture and  the  ratio  of  time  expenditures  to  abihties. 


236 


Educational  Administration 


.2 
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c  s " 


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.E-S 

O  „.2 
nj  (L  «i 


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4  00    MVO    t^  MCO 

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w  t-oo  i-<  t^  0»  O  ^ 

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O»00   f^  M   M   O   -^"O  w^  O   O   fO  moo   O  f^  rO 


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School  Achievement  in  Arithmetic 


237 


TABLE   81 
The  Relation  of  Achievement  in  Arithmetic  to  Time  Allotment 


Comparative 

Comparative  Time 

Time  Distribution  Among 

Achievements 

Expenditure 

Grades 

"3 

•sl 

.a 

H 

0 

Lower  numbers^  show  week  minutes 

Systems 

_. 

.1^ 

tec 

c  a> 

cl 

s| 

S  — 

J 

devoted  to  arithmetic:  upper  show 
per  cent  of  school  time  devoted  to 

*c 

"B'S 

■■5  E 

~  3i 

3  c3 

3  ^ 

'■".y 

0)  c 

gg 

=  43 

c  g- 

•E2 

c  0 

"o  0 

arithmetic  in  each  grade 

11 

< 

">   4j 

w   3 

tn  JJ 

Etj 

E-s. 

l-i 

.3c 

■Sc 

ia.i 

II 

CA) 

t/5 

t/; 

^ 

^ 

dl 

X 

2 

3 

4  :  5 

6 

7 

6 

12 

15 

IS 

IS 

XXII  .  .  . 

I 

I 

I 

14 

1.150 

9.67s 

12 

100 

100 

7 

200 
9 

2S0 
10 

2SO 
0 

2  so 
13 

XXV.  . . . 

3 

4 

2 

2 

722 

8,700 

8 

100 

8 

140 
8 

155 
8 

130 

7 

197 
II 

XXII..  . 

aH 

S 

4 

I 

S07 

7,200 

7 

7 

90 
10 

90 
12 

90 
14 

90 

15 

147 
15 

XX 

s 

7 

3 

IS 

1,161 

8,200 

14 

80 
2 

113 
12 

210 
20 

240 
20 

265    ,    2S3 
24   ,      23 

XVII... . 

VA 

3 

12 

21 

1,283 

7,500 

17 

27 
2 

158 
14 

250 
IS 

258 
IS 

300 
IS 

290 
IS 

VIII..  .. 

8 

II 

S 

18 

1.2.58 

9,600 

13 

25 

233 
11 

250 
15 

250 
20 

2SO 

17 

250 

18 

XV 

8 

9 

7 

16 

1. 173 

8.02s 

15 

10 

147 
9 

213 
II 

292 
11 

2SO 
12 

271 

16 

Ill 

9 

10 

8 

6 

944 

8,02s 

12 

I2S 

125 

ISO 
14 

150 
17 

i6s 

17 

229 

17 

XXIV.  .  . 

10 

2 

18 

7 

95° 

8,775 

11 

7 

200 
12 

2.';o 
12 

250 
14 

250 

18 

X 

10 

l-t 

6 

S 

921 

8.550 

II 

88 
9 

154 
13 

184 
14 

2l6 

14 

279 

IS 

I...:.... 

n 

13 

9 

9 

1,068 

9.375 

11 

28 

1.50 
20 

213 
20 

238 
24 

238 

20 

249 
23 

IV 

12 

4 

20 

26 

I.8S4 

8,400 

22 

249 

8 

300 

12 

306 
14 

361 
14 

300 

IS 

16 

II 

13 

i-S 

II 

17 

1,247 

9.900 

13 

121 
8 

192 
10 

217 
10 

22s 
12 

233 
14 

259 
13 

XXI .... 

13 

16 

10 

4 

86s 

7.650 

11 

80 

100 

8 

100 
12 

180 
18 

210 

18 

195 
19 

VI 

13 

12 

14 

II 

1,126 

9,000 

13 

5 

127 
8 

177 
13 

266 
18 

266 
17 

290 
16 

XVI  .... 

^^H 

6 

23 

12 

1,127 

9,000 

13 

75 

113 

26 

187 
23 

263 
18 

251 

19 

238 
19 

XIII  .... 

IS 

17 

13 

2S 

1,626 

8,475 

19 

6 

388 
5 

350 
15 

288 
20 

300 

20 

300 
19 

XVIII.  . . 

i5 

8 

24 

19 

1.26s 

8,700 

15 

75 
13 

75 
15 

22s 
18 

300 
18 

300 
18 

290 
21 

IX 

17K 

19 

16 

22 

I.5S9 

9,000 

17 

200 

225 
II 

275 
IS 

27s 
18 

275 
18 

309 
18 

XI 

18K 

22 

IS 

10 

1,1.30 

8.S7S 

13 

IS 

157 
16 

216 
18 

250 
19 

250 
19 

257 
19 

XIV  ...  . 

18K 

18 

10 

23 

i.s6o 

8.8so 

18 

22s 

24s 
6 

270 
18 

280 
16 

270 
19 

270 
19 

XII 

19 

21 

17 

13 

1,148 

8,400 

14 

7 

81 
10 

226 
10 

255 
13 

288 
13 

298 
17 

XXVI.  .  . 

22K 

23 

22 

3 

837 

7,200 

12 

80 
13 

12s 
19 

125 
22 

ISO 

22 

150 

22 

207 
17 

VII 

22>i! 

20 

25 

24 

1.573 

7.800 

20 

175 
8 

262 
10 

300 
11 

300 
12 

300 
13 

236 
13 

V 

23 

2.S 

21 

8 

971 

8.700 

11 

113 

8 

154 

lO 

167 
17 

175 
17 

183 
13 

179 
20 

XIX.  ... 

25 

24 

26 

20 

1,276 

9.000 

14 

125 

150 

250 

250 

250 

301 

238 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   82 

Comparison  of  the  Achievements  of  the  Systems  Having  Less  Than  Median 
Time  Cost  with  Those  Having  More 


CoMBixEo  Scores  of  the  Thirteen  Systems 

With  less  than 

Median  Time 

Cost 

With  more  than 

Median  Time 

Cost 

With  less  than 

Median  Time 

Cost 

With  more  than 

Median  Time 

Cost 

Including  home  study 

Without  home  study 

Reasoning 

7,519                   7,893 

40, Tt;!                      A0.27? 

7,277 
37,165 

8,135 
43,859 

Fundamentals 

V 

TABLE   83 
Ratio  of  Time  Expenditures  to  Abilities 


Reasoning  Ratios 


Fundamental  Ratios 


Time  Cost 
to   Rea- 
soning 


3-99 
3.22 

2.88 

2.55 
2.36 
2.48 
2.36 

2-33 
2.25 
2.40 
2  .20 

2.14 
2 .  21 
2  .02 
2  .04 

1-93 

1.77 

1-55 
1-55 
1-53 
1.48 

I  50 
1-37 
1 .06 
1.08 
I   05 


Serial          Ti 
Standing       to 
of  Systems        r 

me  Cost 
Funda- 
nentals 

4 

I 

520 
624 

7 

421 

3 

533 

2 

13 
6 

535 
336 
438 

5 

457 

S 

457 

18 
8 

304 
422 

9 

415 

21 

270 

7 

421 

II 
10 

354 
363 

16 
13 

331 
33(> 

15 

333 

14 
12 

335 
346 

17 

311 

19 

293 

20 

272 

23 

219 

22 

227 

School  Achievement  in  Artihmetic  239 

From  this  investigation  Dr.  Stone  concludes,  ''That  a  large 
amount  of  time  expended  is  no  guarantee  of  a  high  standard  of 
abilities  may  be  convincingly  seen  by  comparing  the  ratios  of 
the  five  systems  spending  the  smallest  amount  of  time  with  the 
five  spending  the  largest.  Of  the  five  spending  the  least  time,  the 
average  ratio  is  .80,  which  corresponds  with  the  23d  or  the  3d 
from  the  best  in  ratio;  and  of  the  five  spending  the  greatest 
amount  of  time,  the  average  ratio  is  1.57,  which  corresponds 
with  the  4th  poorest  in  ratio. 

"The  last  three  tables  have  each  shown  the  decided  lack  of 
relationship  between  time  cost  and  abilities  produced,  and  hence 
for  these  systems  it  is  evident  that  there  is  practically  no  relation 
between  time  expenditure  and  arithmetical  abilities;  and,  in 
view  of  the  representative  nature  of  these  twenty-six  systems,  it 
is  probable  that  this  lack  of  relationship  is  the  rule  the  country 
over. 

"This  is  not  to  say  that  a  certain  amount  of  time  is  not  essen- 
tial to  the  production  of  arithmetical  abilities;  nor  that,  given  the 
same  other  factors,  operating  equally  well,  the  product  will  not 
increase  somewhat  with  an  increased  time  expenditure.  What 
is  claimed  is  that,  as  present  practice  goes,  a  large  amount  of 
time  spent  on  arithmetic  is  no  guarantee  of  a  high  degree  of 
efficiency.  If  one  were  to  choose  at  random  among  the  schools 
with  more  than  the  median  time  given  to  arithmetic,  the  chances 
are  about  equal  that  he  would  get  a  school  with  an  inferior  prod- 
uct and  conversely,  if  one  were  to  choose  among  the  schools  with 
less  than  the  median  time  cost,  the  chances  are  about  equal  that 
he  would  get  a  school  with  a  superior  product  in  arithmetic. 

"  So  far,  then,  as  ability  in  arithmetic  means  ability  to  handle 
such  foundation  work  as  is  measured  by  the  tests  in  this  study, 
this  'essential'  has  not  necessarily  suffered  by  the  introduction 
of  other  subjects  and  the  consequent  reduction  of  its  time  allot- 
ment." 


240  Educational  Administration 

Dr.  Stone  finds  that  the  influence  of  the  home  is  not  responsible 
for  differences  in  abilities.  He  says:  "Environment  probably 
has  little  ejffect  on  arithmetical  abilities.  Of  the  five  highest 
systems,  the  majority  of  pupils  of  one  came  from  a  crowded 
tenement  district,  those  of  two  from  exceptionally  good  homes, 
and  those  of  two  from  fair.  Practically  the  same  distribution  is 
found  among  the  five  systems  standing  lowest."  When  the  time 
devoted  to  home  study  is  considered  the  correlation  between 
abilities  and  time  expenditure  is  somewhat  closer.  In  the  main, 
differences  in  abilities  are  to  be  explained  by  teaching  and  super- 
vision. These  differences  will  grow  less  when  teachers  and  super- 
visors know  just  what  results  they  want  to  secure  and  when  it 
is  common  to  make  such  accurate  measurements  frequently. 


§  20.  School  Achievement  in  Terms  of  Methods  of  Work 

Education  aims  to  equip  children  with  knowledge,  with  habits, 
with  appreciations,  with  ideals  and  with  methods  of  work.  Too 
often  the  demand  made  upon  the  teacher  both  by  supervisory- 
officers  and  by  the  general  public,  leads  him  to  emphasize  results 
in  knowledge  or  habit  to  the  exclusion  of  any  very  definite  at- 
tempt to  secure  power  of  appreciation,  purposes  of  lasting  signif- 
icance, or  any  adequate  command  of  the  methods  to  be  employed 
in  the  education  which  takes  place  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
Teachers,  especially  in  the  elementary  school,  are  apt  to  help 
pupils  too  much.  In  the  higher  schools  one  often  hears  a  teacher 
require  a  class  to  study  a  given  lesson,  but  seldom  does  one  find 
a  teacher  much  concerned  about  the  method  employed  in  satis- 
fying this  demand.  Both  teaching  and  studying  are  most  eco- 
nomically accomplished  when  teacher  or  student,  conscious  of  the 
learning  processes,  adapt  themselves  to  these  conditions  imposed 
by  the  very  nature  of  our  mental  life. 

Guiding  children  successfully  in  the  development  of  their 
mental  fife  as  indicated  by  acquiring  knowledge,  or  habits,  or 
ideals,  does  not  involve  the  result  so  much  desired  of  abiHty  to 
continue  this  work  independent  of  the  help  of  the  teacher.  The 
method  which  the  teacher  finds  successful  must  become  the 
conscious  tool  of  the  pupil.  The  teacher  who  is  successful  merely 
through  imitation,  or  by  a  process  of  trial  and  success  cannot  be 
expected  to  teach  a  boy  how  to  work  to  best  advantage  for  him- 
self. One  very  important  reason  for  training  teachers  in  the 
theory  of  teaching  is  found  in  this  necessity  for  a  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  learning  by  one  who  would  teach  others  how  best 
to  use  such  ability  as  he  may  possess. 

The  only  investigation  of  the  results  commonly  secured,  or 

241 


242  Educational  Administration 

which  we  may  hope  to  secure,  in  power  to  work  independently 
on  the  part  of  school  children  is  found  in  Dr.  Lida  B.  Earhart's 
[08]  "Systematic  Study  in  the  Elementary  School."  Some  of 
the  results  of  this  study  are  presented  in  the  pages  which  follow. 
It  will  be  admitted  that  any  possibility  of  adequate  training 
for  independent  work  depends  upon  the  appreciation  which  the 
teacher  has  of  the  processes  involved.  Dr.  Earhart  asked  a 
large  number  of  teachers  to  answer  the  following  questionnaire: 

1.  Assuming  that  memorizing  is  one  of  the  processes  employed  in  studying,  tell 
how  you  would  memorize  a  poem  or  a  chapter  in  the  Bible. 

2.  Many  teachers  when  directing  pupils  to  study,  tell  them  to  think  about  the 
lesson.  Enumerate  the  various  things  which  you  think  ought  to  be  done  in  "think- 
ing about  a  lesson." 

3.  Is  there  anything  else  which  you  think  ought  to  be  done  in  studying  a  lesson? 

4.  Do  you  do  any  of  the  things  named  under  1,2,  and  3  more  frequently  than  the 
others?    If  so,  which  are  they? 

5.  When  you  were  a  pupil  in  the  Elementary  School,  were  j'ou  taught  to  use  any 
of  these  steps  or  processes  systematically?    If  so,  which  ones? 

6.  If  you  have  taught  in  an  Elementary  School,  have  you  ever  trained  your 
pupils  there  to  use  any  of  these  steps  or  processes?  If  you  have,  which  steps  or 
processes  were  they? 

Some  of  Dr.  Earhart's  conclusions  follow: 

"It  is  interesting  to  note  that  at  least  78%  of  the  teachers 
read  or  study  a  poem  or  chapter  before  memorizing  it.  .  .  . 

"Only  23.6%  of  the  teachers  report  that  they  divide  a  selec- 
tion into  thought  units  in  memorizing,  while  a  much  longer  num- 
ber use  such  mechanical  divisions  as  lines,  sentences,  or  stanzas. 
Again,  only  about  11%  reported  that  they  pictured  situations. 
i.  c.  imagined;  13%  said  they  traced  thought  relations;  and  less 
than  6%  that  they  associated  the  ideas  of  the  poem  or  chapter 
with  known  facts.  More  than  one-fourth  reported  that  in  memo- 
rizing they  use  cumulative  repetition,  i.  e.  the  House-that- Jack 
Built  order  of  procedure,  going  from  line  to  line,  then  back  again 
to  the  beginning  for  a  fresh  start.    Wherever  details  are  given 


School  Achievement  in  Terms  of  Methods  of  Work    243 

explicitly  enough  to  make  the  meaning  clear,  the  mechanical 
side  is  seen  to  predominate.  .  .  . 

"Some  explanation  of  the  failure  of  so  many  pupils  to  work 
systematically  and  effectively  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  in 
stating  the  various  things  which  they  think  ought  to  be  done  in 
'thinking  about  a  lesson'  not  more  than  33  1-3%  of  the  teachers 
agreed  upon  any  one  item.  There  were  at  least  twenty  things 
mentioned  which  should  be  done,  and  the  element  considered 
most  important  was  indicated  by  one-third  of  the  writers.  This 
was,  *  Find  the  important  points ' — a  very  necessary  thing  to  do 
in  studying,  the  strange  part  being  that  so  few  of  the  teachers 
felt  its  importance.  A  number  of  the  other  items  given  are  either 
so  general  as  to  give  no  idea  of  what  the  writers  really  meant,  or 
they  are  mechanical,  e.  g.  apperceive,  reason,  understand  the 
meaning,  memorize.  Only  15%  felt  keenly  enough  to  mention 
it  the  necessity  of  finding  the  main  thought  or  problem.  The 
questions  arise:  If  teachers  do  not  feel  the  necessity  of  finding 
the  problem  sufficiently  to  speak  of  it  in  describing  the  process 
of  study,  will  they  be  likely  to  think  of  it  when  working  with 
pupils?  .... 

"Attention,  interest,  perception,  apperception,  imagination, 
memory,  correlation,  comparison,  and  reason — these  make  up 
one- third  of  the  separate  items  in  answer  to  the  third  question, 
and  tell  a  minimum  as  to  what  is  really  to  be  done.  The  large 
number  of  items  and  the  indefiniteness  of  many  of  them,  show 
that  these  teachers  do  not  clearly  see  the  nature  of  study.  No 
steps  stand  out  strongly  in  the  minds  of  a  large  number,  but 
instead  there  is  confusion  of  thought,  and  lack  of  agree- 
ment. .  .  . 

"In  answering  the  questions:  Do  you  do  any  of  the  things 
mentioned  under  i,  2,  and  3,  more  frequently  than  the  others? 
If  so,  which  are  they?  the  teachers  Hmited  the  number  of  steps 
mentioned  but  still  scattered  their  votes,  showing  the  same  fail- 


244  Educational  Administration 

ure  to  recognize  essential  features.  Twenty-four  per  cent  said 
they  memorized  more  frequently  than  anything  else;  and  as  low 
a  per  cent  as  appears,  1.2%,  represents  the  number  who  recog- 
nized the  importance  of  finding  the  aim  or  problem.  .  .  . 

"The  fifth  question  answered  by  the  teachers  was:  When  you 
were  a  pupil  in  the  elementary  school,  were  you  taught  to  use  any 
of  these  steps  or  processes  systematically?  If  so,  which  ones? 
Eliminating  those  who  reported  definitely  that  they  were  not 
taught,  those  who  did  not  remember,  and  those  whose  answers 
were  not  relevant — nearly  65%  of  the  teachers,  there  are  35% 
left  who  say  they  were  systematically  taught.  20.6%,  much 
more  than  half  of  this  remnant,  were  taught  to  memorize,  while 
the  factors  of  logical  study  are  hardly  recognized  at  all  in  this 
report." 

Dr.  Earhart  also  calls  attention  to  the  type  of  assignment 
as  indicating  a  lack  of  appreciation  on  the  part  of  teachers  of  the 
necessity  for  a  problem  or  aim. 

"Five  lesson  assignments  in  sixth  grade  history  were  observed, 
and  three  recitations,  the  two  exercises  being  separated  in  time. 
The  results  can  be  shown  briefly. 

I.     Total  number  of  classes  observed S 

Classes  Per  ct 

Lesson  assigned  by  subject 4  80 

Lesson  assigned  by  pages  or  paragraphs 2  40 

Pupils  directed  to  references i  20 

Pupils  directed  to  ask  questions i  20 

Pupils  directed  to  read  lesson i  20 

Pupils  directed  to  read  smoothly i  20 

Total  classes  visited 12 

Classes  Per  ct 

Number  of  assignments  not  observed 7  58 . 3 

Number  of  assignments  by  pages 2  16.7 

Number  of  assignments  by  subject 2  16.7 

Number  of  times  teacher  gave  questions i  8.3 

The  recitations  showed  these  details: 

1.  Total  number  of  classes  visited 12 

Classes  Per  ct 

2.  Number  of  drill  or  review  exercises 4  33-3 

3.  Number  of  times  teacher  gave  outUne 3  25 . 


School  Achievement  in  Terms  of  Methods  of  Work    245 

Classes  Per  ct. 

4.  Number  of  times  pupils  found  topics i            8.3 

5.  Number  of  memory  recitations  observed i             8.3 

6.  Number  of  times  teacher  supplemented  text i            8.3 

7.  Number  of  times  pupils  supplemented  text i             8.3 

8.  Number  of  times  pupils  reasoned  or  explained 5  41  ■  7 

9.  Number  of  times  teacher  questioned 9  75 . 

10.  Number  of  recitations  not  observed 2  16. 7 

"These  observations,  like  most  of  the  others,  reveal  the  teacher 
doing  nearly  all  of  the  work,  and  very  Httle  initiative  or  oppor- 
tunity for  independent,  constructive  work  left  to  the  pupils. 
In  not  a  single  class  did  the  pupils  question  or  participate  in 
discussion." 

Dr.  Earhart  took  a  fourth  grade  class  in  literature  for  sixteen 
lessons  in  order  to  discover  how  much  could  be  accompUshed 
in  that  length  of  time  toward  teaching  them  how  to  study.  Quo- 
tations from  her  description  of  the  experiment  and  the  results 
secured  follow. 

"The  early  recitations  showed  that  the  pupils  responded  with 
interest  to  the  subject  matter,  and  that  they  desired  information 
in  regard  to  many  things,  these  frequently  being  facts  which 
the  editor  had  omitted.  They  were  ready  to  pass  judgment  as  to 
character,  as  for  example,  when  they  commended  Nausicaa's 
act  of  kindness  to  Ulysses.  But  these  lessons  showed,  also,  that 
the  pupils  needed  to  look  for  the  problems  in  the  story;  that 
they  needed  training  in  analysis  and  organization  of  the  material; 
in  making  out  the  pronunciation  and  meaning  of  words,  and  in 
thinking  out  the  meaning  of  sentences.  The  teacher  found,  too, 
.that  she  needed  to  ehminate  herself  more  thoroughly,  and  throw 
more  responsibility  upon  the  class. 

''In  the  third  lesson  the  pupils  were  asked  to  suggest  ways  for 
finding  out  the  meaning  of  words  needed  in  reading.  Various 
means  were  presented,  and  at  last  the  class  decided  to  try  to  use 
another  word  in  the  place  of  the  word  not  understood.  After 
that  lesson,  they  took  care  of  meanings  themselves,  asking  to 


246  Educational  Administration 

have  a  word  substituted  for  the  word  which  they  could  not  under- 
stand. They  grew  very  critical,  refusing  definitions  and  explana- 
tions, and  objecting  to  words  whose  substitution  did  not  bring 
understanding  or  satisfaction.  They  would  say,  'You  did  not  do 
what  I  asked  you,'  and  more  than  once  a  pupil  was  told  to  sit 
down  because  his  answer  was  not  what  had  been  asked  for.  They 
were  attempting  to  satisfy  needs,  and  were  very  discriminating 
in  their  judgment  about  words.  The  previously  felt  difficulty 
about  synonyms  disappeared  whenever  the  need  of  such  words 
was  felt.  .  .  . 

*'  The  first  lesson  showed  that  the  pupils  were  not  able  to  divide 
the  lesson  into  parts.  In  the  fourth  lesson,  they  were  asked  to 
think  of  a  good  name  for  a  certain  part  of  the  story  and  to  write 
these  names  on  paper.  Out  of  a  class  of  twenty,  one  began  to 
write  the  story,  and  two  or  three  did  nothing.  A  few  were  absent. 
The  rest  gave  the  following  list,  which  is  a  great  gain  over  the 
first  lesson: 

Ulysses  meets  Nausicaa. 

When  Ulysses  meets  Nausicaa. 

Ulysses  and  Nausicaa. 

Ulysses  speaking  to  Nausicaa. 

Nausicaa  meets  the  stranger  which  is  Ulysses. 

Ulysses. 

Ulysses  gets  food  and  drink. 

Ulysses  goes  to  town.  , 

Nausicaa  clothes  Ulysses. 

"A  few  other  similar  to  these  were  given. 
''Towards  the  close  of  the  series  of  lessons,  after  the  pupils  had 
read  the  booklet  of  eight  pages  entitled,  Penelope  and  Telema- 
chus  during  Ulysses'  Absence,  they  were  asked  to  name  in  order 
the  things  they  would  talk  about  if  they  were  telling  the  story 
to  some  one  at  home.  They  gave  the  following  outline  very 
promptly; 

The  princes  wish  to  marry  Penelope. 
Penelope  deceives  the  princes. 


School  Achievement  in  Terms  of  Methods  of  Work    247 

Telemachus  holds  a  council. 

Telemachus  goes  to  inquire  about  Ulysses. 

Telemachus  visits  Nestor. 

Telemachus  visits  Menelaus. 

The  suitors  making  ready  to  kill  Telemachus. 

Penelope  hears  of  Telemachus'  absence.  .  .  . 

"One  example  of  their  filling  out  and  explaining  situations  was 
afiforded  by  the  answers  to  the  question  of  a  child  who  asked, 
'How  did  Ulysses  know  that  Nausicaa  was  the  daughter  of  a 
king?  He  had  never  seen  her  before.'  The  following  replies  were 
given:  (i)  'Because  she  stayed,  although  the  maidens  ran  away.' 
(2)  'Because  she  had  mules.'  (3)  'Because  she  had  maids.' 
(4)  'Maybe  she  had  nice  clothes.'  (5)  'Maybe  she  wore  a  band 
of  gold  on  her  head.'  At  another  time,  a  child  asked,  'Why  did 
the  suitors  want  to  marry  Penelope?'  One  little  girl  gave  in 
substance  this  reply:  'Because  she  was  gentle  and  kind,  and  was 
not  lazy,  but  looked  after  the  house.  She  could  spin,  and  could 
weave  beautiful  cloth.    She  could  do  her  own  washing.'  .  .  . 

"When  the  last  booklet  in  the  story  of  Ulysses  was  taken  up, 
there  was  time  for  but  one  lesson  with  the  class,  so  that  results 
had  to  be  hurried  somewhat.  The  pupils  had  already  stated  the 
questions  to  be  answered  and  these  constituted  the  aims  in  read- 
ing this  section.  They  were  told  to  read  through  the  entire  book- 
let of  eight  pages  silently,  then  to  make  a  list  of  the  important  sub- 
jects in  it,  to  write  any  questions  which  they  would  like  to  have 
answered,  and  any  words  in  place  of  which  they  would  like  to 
have  other  words  used.  These  papers  were  written  by  the  pupils 
with  no  help  whatever  save  in  regard  to  spelling,  use  of  capital 
letters,  and  punctuation.  Some  of  the  papers  are  here  reported 
just  as  they  were  written. 

ROSE 

1.  Ulysses  awakens. 

2.  The  swineherd  gives  food  to  Ulysses. 

3.  Telemachus  goes  to  the  swineherd's  house. 


248  Educational  Administration 

4.  Ulysses  tells  Telemachus  that  he  is  his  beloved  father. 

5.  Ulysses  dines  with  Telemachus,  and  the  swineherd. 

6.  Telemachus  goes  to  town  to  see  his  mother. 

7.  Telemachus  tells  Penelope  what  had  happened  when  he  was  away. 

8.  Ulysses  goes  to  the  palace  as  a  beggar. 

9.  Penelope  hears  of  the  shameful  treatment. 

10.  Ulysses  tells  Penelope  what  he  had  heard  from  Ulysses  not  long  ago. 

1 1 .  The  nurse  gives  Ulysses  a  bath. 

12.  The  nurse  fells  (feels)  Ulysses  scar. 

13.  Ulysses  kills  the  suitors. 

14.  Telemachus  and  Ulysses  goes  to  the  house  of  Laertes. 

15.  Ulysses  reigned  over  Ithaca  as  beloved  as  before. 

Why  did  Ulysses  kill  the  suitors,  why  did  he  not  send  them  away? 
Wh>'  did  Ulysses  go  to  town  as  a  beggar,  why  did  he  not  show  himself? 
Why  didn't  Ulysses  tell  the  swineherd  he  was  his  master? 
Why  did  Telemachus  and  Ulysses  store  the  weapons  in  the  inner  rooms? 
Why  don't  Ulysses  tell  Penelope  that  he  was  Ulysses  instead  ot  telling  her  that 
he  has  fought  by  Ulysses'  side?  » 

Why  did  Ulysses  sleep,  why  did  he  not  wake  up  and  go  to  town? 
Why  did  Ulysses  go  to  the  house  of  Laertes? 
scrip 
revels 
threatened 
dole 
EARL. 

1.  Ulysses  awakes. 

2.  Ulysses  and  the  swineherd. 

3.  Ulysses  meets  Telemachus  again. 

4.  Penelope  and  Telemachus. 

5.  Penelope  and  the  beggar. 

6.  The  nurse  recognizes  Ulysses. 

7.  Penelope  gives  a  contest. 

8.  Ulysses  tries  the  bow. 

9.  The  death  of  the  suitors. 

10.  Ulysses  rules  over  Ithaca  again. 

Why  did  Ulysses  go  to  the  swineherd? 

Why  did  Ulysses  beg  for  his  bread? 

Why  didn't  Ulysses  tell  Penelope  that  he  was  her  husband? 

Why  did  Telemachus  go  to  the  house  of  Laertes? 

procured  treachery  rumor 

scrip  abusive  adjourned 

thong  bower  covenant 

revels  combat  reigned 


School  Achievement  in  Terms  of  Methods  of  Work    249 

"Several  papers  were  prepared  which  were  quite  equal  to  Earl's 
and  some  might  be  considered  better.  The  rest  would  grade  in 
excellence  from  these  down  to  the  following  one  prepared  by  a 
boy  who  had  been  in  class  only  two  or  three  days  when  the  exer- 
cise was  given: 

1.  When  Ulysses  wakened  from  his  sleep. 

2.  He  bought  from  a  sheapherd  a  ragged  dirty  dock  (cloak). 

3.  He  went  to  visit  the  swineherd. 

4.  As  she  bathed  his  feet  she  touched  the  scar. 

"This  series  of  lessons  showed  plainly  that  pupils  in  the  fourth 
grade  are  capable  of  finding  problems  for  themselves,  of  organiz- 
ing the  lesson,  of  asking  intelligent  questions,  of  forming  sensible 
hypotheses,  of  exercising  judgment  as  to  the  statements  made  by 
the  author,  of  mastering  formal  difficulties  for  themselves,  and, 
in  various  ways,  of  exercising  initiative  wisely  and  profitably. 
It  shows,  too,  that  when  pupils  work  in  such  a  way  they  work 
with  zeal,  and  accompHsh  much  more  than  is  done  when  they 
must  spend  time  upon  useless  details  and  mechanical  methods 
of  working." 


§  21.  School  Records  and  Reports 

The  development  of  adequate  school  records  and  significant 
school  reports  may  be  traced  on  the  one  hand  to  the  growth  of 
the  profession  of  education,  and  on  the  other  to  the  demand  which 
the  public  is  now  making  for  complete  information  concerning 
public  enterprises.  There  was  a  time  when  it  was  customary  for 
school  boards  or  school  committees  to  make  a  report  consisting 
largely  in  a  statement  of  their  activities  in  hiring  teachers,  build- 
ing and  equipping  school  plants,  and  in  visiting  the  schools. 
To-day  teachers  are  hired  and  schools  are  organized  and  admin- 
istered by  an  educational  expert,  and  in  like  manner  school  re- 
ports are  an  account  of  the  results  secured  under  the  direction 
of  the  school's  chief  executive  officer.  When  school  boards  told 
of  their  activities,  the  schools  were  relatively  few  and  the  organi- 
zation simple.  The  reports  which  they  rendered  demanded  little 
in  the  way  of  expert  knowledge  either  of  schools  or  of  refined 
methods  of  recording  or  reporting  school  activities.  To-day 
there  are  many  people  who  judge  of  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
superintendent  in  terms  of  his  ability  to  satisfy  any  inquiry 
which  may  be  made  concerning  the  course  of  study,  the  teachers, 
the  pupils,  or  fiscal  aspects  of  the  problem  with  which  he  deals, 
together  with  any  interrelation  which  may  exist  among  these 
several  parts  of  the  whole  problem. 

It  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  between  records  and  reports.  The 
records  which  are  accumulated  in  any  one  field  furnish  the  raw 
material  of  the  report  which  is  made  concerning  this  aspect  of 
school  practice.  Original  records  are  significant  only  as  they  are 
combined  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  light  upon  the  particular 
problems  involved.  Of  course  it  is  true  that  reports  commonly 
include  much  discussion  of  school  policy  which  is  not  based  in 

250 


School  Records  and  Reports  251 

any  considerable  degree  upon  school  records.  However,  with 
the  demand  that  is  being  made  with  greater  and  greater  frequency 
that  any  problem  be  supported  with  a  statement  of  the  results 
which  may  be  expected,  makes  the  relationship  between  records 
kept  in  the  school  system  itself,  or  derived  from  other  school 
systems,  a  matter  of  primary  importance  even  in  that  part  of  the 
report  which  is  frankly  a  discussion  of  future  development.  In- 
deed, it  may  well  be  claimed  that  it  is  a  primary  function  of 
school  records  to  make  known  school  needs. 

It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  any  considerable  addition  has 
been  given  to  the  form  of  the  records  or  reports  of  school  systems. 
A  few  years  ago  a  report  of  attendance  giving  the  total  number 
enrolled  and  the  average  daily  attendance,  would  probably 
have  been  considered  satisfactory.  In  addition  to  the  record  of 
attendance,  one  would  probably  have  found  a  scholarship  record 
kept  by  each  teacher.  In  the  same  system  one  would  have 
found  a  very  simple  system  of  accounting  and  a  report  of  expendi- 
tures distributed  among  a  very  few  items,  such  as  teachers'  sala- 
ries, text-books,  stationery,  fuel,  and  possibly  a  few  other  items. 
Quite  commonly  a  large  part  of  the  total  amount  expended  was 
reported  as  miscellaneous  expenses.  This  tendency  to  report 
in  terms  of  totals  and  averages  has  been  superseded  by  the  de- 
mand for  all  of  the  facts.  Students  of  education,  as  well  as  those 
who  are  interested  in  public  enterprises,  whether  in  education 
or  in  some  other  field,  have  come  to  realize  that  it  is  necessary 
to  know  the  facts  in  terms  of  their  distribution,  showing  the 
limits  or  range  within  which  the  cases  considered  lie,  the  central 
tendency,  variability,  and  the  like,  if  any  adequate  interpretation 
of  the  situation  is  to  be  hoped  for  (See  article  on  Statistical 
Method).  This  demand  for  adequate  statistical  treatment  of 
school  facts  is  being  met  throughout  the  world  to-day  by  an 
improved  system  of  records  and  by  more  adequate  reporting.  As 
examples  of  this  development,  one  might  cite  the  cumulative 


252 


Educational  Administration 


pupil  record  card,  and  the  form  for  reporting  fiscal  statistics, 
which  have  been  recently  recommended  by  a  committee  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation. 

Five  years  ago  there  were  very  few  cities,  probably  not  more 
than  thirty,  in  the  United  States  who  could,  without  very  great 
difficulty,  furnish  a  record  of  a  pupil's  school  life  from  the  time 
he  entered  school  to  the  date  upon  which  the  inquiry  was  made. 
To-day  there  are  more  than  two  hundred  cities  who  have  reported 
to  the  committee  referred  to  above  that  they  are  using  a  cumula- 
tive record  card  at  least  as  adequate  as  the  one  recommended  by 
the  N.  E.  A.  Committee.    A  copy  of  this  card  follows: 


Elementary  School  Record  System — Promotion  Record 

This  card  is  to  pass  from  teacher  to  teacher  or  from  school  to  school 
as  the  pupil  is  promoted  or  transferred.    It  is  to  be  filled  out  and  sent 
to  the  principal's  office  when  any  change  is  made  requiring  a  change 
in  the  office  records.    It  is  then  to  be  sent  to  the  teacher  who  has  the 
pupil. 

(a) 
School 

(b) 
Date 
of  ad- 
mis- 
sion 

(0 
Age  Sept.  I 

(d) 
Grade 

(e) 
Room 

(f> 

Days 
pres- 
ent 

(g) 
Health 

(h) 

Con- 
duct 

Schol- 
arship 

Yrs. 

Mos. 



(over) 

School  Records  and  Reports 


253 


(2)  First  name  and  initial 

Record   System — 
Admission,      Dis- 
charge, AND  Pro- 
motion Card. 

(3)  Place  of  birth 

(4)  Date  of  birth 

(S)  Vaccinated 

To  be  kept  for  every 
pupil     and     sent     with 
the    pupil    when    he    is 
transferred         to        any 
school,      either      public 
or    private,    in    the    city 
or      outside      the      city. 
Great     care     should     be 
used       to       have       the 
names      complete      and 
correct. 

Write     all     dates     as 
follows.  1912-9-25. 

(6)  Name     of     parent     or 
guardian. 

(7)  Occupation     of     parent     or 
guardian. 

(8)  Residence.     (Use  one  column   at  a   time.     Give  new   resi- 
dence when  pupil  is  transferred.) 

(9)  Date  of 
discharge 

(10)  Age 

Yrs. 

1 
Mos.  \ 

1 

■  ■  ■   1 

1 

1 

When  a  pupil  is  permanently  discharged  to  work,  to  remain  at  home,  or  because  of  death,  . 
permanent  illness,  or  commitment  to  an  institution,  this  card  is  to  be  returned  to  the  principal's 
office  and  a  full  statement  of  the  cause  of  the  pupil's  discharge  is  to  be  made  in  the  blank  space 
remaining  above. 

8-304                                                                                                                                       (over) 

A  cumulative  record  card  similar  to  the  one  given  above 
should  be  kept  for  every  child  throughout  his  entire  school  career. 
From  such  a  pupil  record  it  will  be  possible  at  any  time  during 
the  pupil's  attendance  in  public  schools  to  determine:  i.  The 
amount  of  attendance  of  individual  pupils  for  one  year;  2.  com- 
parative rates  of  progress  in  schools  having  school  terms  differing 
in  length;  3,  classification  of  pupils  by  age  and  grade;  4.  classi- 
fication of  pupils  for  enrollment  date  (a)  duplicate  enrollment  in 
the  school,  (b)  duplicate  in  other  public  schools  in  the  same 


254  Educational  Administration 

town  or  city,  (c)  duplicate  enrollment  from  other  public  schools 
in  the  same  city,  (d)  original  enrollment  from  all  other  sources; 

5.  the  number  of  times  a  child  has  been  detained  in  a  grade; 

6.  foreign  birth  or  parentage  as  affecting  progress;  7.  kindergarten 
training  as  affecting  progress;  8.  transfers  as  affecting  progress; 
9.  the  effect  of  attendance  (or  absences)  on  progress;  10.  inquiries 
having  to  do  with  individual  school  management,  as  well  as 
many  other  valuable  and  interesting  facts  about  school  children. 

The  demand  for  better  fiscal  statistics  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  form  recommended  by  the  National  Education  Association 
Committee,  which  follows: 


School  Records  and  Reports 


255 


A.  PAYMENTS 
I.  Expenses  (Cost  of  Conducting  ScHoot  System) 


Total 

Salaries 

Other 
objects 

Expenses  or  General  Control  (Overhead  Charges) 

2.  School  elections  ;ind  school  cens 

5.  Operation  and  maintenance  of  office  bu 

6.  Offices  in  charge  of  buildings  and  suppl 

7.  Office  of  superintendent  of  scho< 

8.  Enforcement  of  compulsory  edu 

9.  Other  expenses  of  general  contrc 

lU 

cation  and  truancy  lav 
)1 

^s 

10.              Total 

Total 

Schools  and  Special  Activities      *• 

Day 
Schools 

Evening 
Schools 

% 
"a 

i 

Xi 

1.1 

0 
(/2 

1 

1 
to 

.hi 

III 

la 

-0 

i 
1 

C 
§ 

b 

-0 
c 
0 

in 

1 

u 

1 

II.  Salaries  of  sur)ervisors  of  grades 

13.  Salaries  of  principals  and  their 

17.  Stationery  and  supplies  used  in 



19.               Total 



Expenses  of  Operation  of 
School  Plant 

20.  Wages  of  janitors  and  other  em- 

31.  Fuel 

22.  Water 

24.  Janitor's  supplies 

25.  Other  expenses  of  operation  of 
school  plant 

26.              Total 

— 



256 


Educational  Administration 


A.  PAYMENTS— Con/i»«c<i 
I.  Expenses  (Cost  of  Conducting  School  System) — Continued 


Total 

Schools  and  Special  Activities 

Day 

Schools 

Evening 
Schools 

1 

Xi 

E 
i-< 
0 

i 
1 

c  >3 
.  c 

bis 

to 
>> 

M 
§ 
(A 

C 
1 
M 

a 
■a 

§ 

II 

t/3 

8 

"3 
1 

W3 

I 
in 

Expenses  of  Maintenance  of 
School  Plant 

27.  Repair  of  buildings  and  upkeep 

28.  Repair     and     replacement     of 

30.  Other  expenses  of  maintenance 

31.              Total 

1 

Expenses  of  Auxiliary 
Agencies 

libraries 

34.  Other  expenses 

\ 

promotion  of  health 

\ 

transportation  of  pupils 

1 

1 



1 ' 

1 

39.             Total 

^ 

! 

Miscellaneous  Expenses 

\ 

41.  Pa>[ments_to  schools  of  other 

\ 

44.  Rent 

1 

! 1 

46.              Total 

1 

'                                                  .                       ' 

School  Records  and  Reports 


257 


A.  PAYMENTS— Con/«»«e</ 

II.  OCTLAVS   (CaPITAI.  ACQUISITION  AND   CONSTRUCTION) 


47.  Land 

49.  Alteration  ofold  buildings  .... 

50.  Equipment  of  new  buildings  and 

SI.  Equipment  of  old  buildings,  ex- 

52.             Total 

1 

III.  Other  Payments 


53.  Redemption  of  bonds $. 

54.  Redemption  of  short-term  loans 

55.  Payment  of  warrants  and  orders  of  preceding  year 

56.  Payments  to  sinking  funds 

57.  Payments  of  interest '. 

58.  Miscellaneous  payments,  including  payments  to  trust  funds,  textbooks 

to  be  sold  to  pupils,  etc 

59.  Total 

60.  Balances  at  close  of  year  at $. 

61.  Total  payments  and  balances 


B.  RECEIPTS 
Revenue  Receipts 


63.  Subventions  and  grants  from  State $. 

63.  Subventions  and  grants  from  county 

64.  Subventions  and  grants  from  other  civil  divisions 

65.  Appropriations  from  city  treasury 

66.  (iencral  property  taxes 

67.  Business  taxes  (licenses,  excise  taxes,  taxes  on  corporations,  taxes  on 

occupations,  etc.) 

68.  Poll  taxes 

69.  Fines  and  penalties 

70.  Rents  and  interest 

71.  Tuition  and  other  fees  from  patrons 

72.  Transfers  from  other  districts  in  payment  of  tuition 

73.  All  other  revenue 

74.  Total  revenue  receipts 


Non-revenue  Receipts 


75.  Loans  and  bond  sales $ . 

76.  Warrants  issued  and  unpaid 

77.  Sales  of  real  property  and  proceeds  of  insurance  adjustment 

78.  Sales  of  equipment  and  supplies 

79.  Refund  of  payments 

80.  Other  non-revenue  receipts 

81.  Total  non-revenue  receipts 

82.  Total  receipts 

83.  Balances  at  beginning  of  year 

84.  Total  receipts  and  balances 


258 


Educational  Administration 


C.  VALUE  OF  SCHOOL  PROPERTIES 


CLASS   OF   BUILDINGS 

Total  Value 
of  Sites, 
Buildings, 

and 
Equipment 

Value   of 
Sites  and 
Buildings 

Value  of 
Equipment 

Interest 

on  Value 

of  School 

Plant 

A  few  years  ago  very  few  cities  could  have  distributed  their 
expenditures  in  any  such  manner  as  is  indicated  in  this  form.  It 
was  not  common  either  to  indicate  as  clearly  as  is  demanded 
above,  the  purpose  for  which  money  was  spent,  nor  the  particular 
type  of  institution  or  activity  for  which  money  was  used.  There 
are  to-day  four  hundred  and  eighteen  cities  reporting  to  the 
N.  E.  A.  Committee  that  their  system  of  accounting  enables  them 
to  give  reports  at  least  as  adequate  as  that  indicated  in  this  form. 
This  means,  of  course,  that  there  has  been  in  recent  years  an 
increased  addition  to  the  business  aspect  of  school  administration. 
In  many  cases  it  means  that  a  special  officer,  variously  called  a 
business  manager,  a  secretary,  a  controller,  or  a  school  auditor, 
has  been  added  to  the  staff  employed  by  the  Board  of  Education. 

Further  illustration  of  the  more  adequate  form  of  report  may 
be  indicated  by  calling  attention  to  forms  of  reporting  now  com- 
monly used  in  our  school  reports.  It  was  not  unusual  a  few  years 
ago  to  have  school  salaries  reported  as  a  single  item.  Manifestly 
the  truth  about  salaries  can  be  known  only  when  we  know  how 
many  teachers  receive  each  of  the  several  salary  amounts,  as 
indicated  in  a  table  like  the  following.  Tables  of  this  kind  are 
not  now  uncommon.    See  Table  84. 


School  Records  and  Reports 


259 


TABLE  84 


Number  of  Elementary -school  Teachers  with 
Salaries — 


Below 
$350  to 

400  to 

450  to 

500  to 

550  to 

600  to 

650  to 

700  to 

750  to 

800  to 

850  to 

900  to 

950  to  1,000.  .  . 
1,000  to  1,050.  .  . 
1,050  to  1,100.  .  . 
1,100  to  1,150.  .  . 
1,150  to  1,200.  .  . 
1,200  and  above. 


S350- 
400. 

450- 
500. 
550. 
600. 
650. 
700. 
750. 
800. 
850. 
900. 
950. 


Number  of  High-school  Teachers  with 
Salaries — 


Below  S500 

$500  to  S600. . , 

600  to     700. . . 

700  to     800. . . 

800  to     goo. . . 

900  to  1 ,000.  .  , 
1,000  to  1,100.  .  , 
1,100  to  1,200.  .  . 
1,200  to  1,300.  .  . 
1,300  to  1,400.  .  . 
1,400  to  1,500.  .  . 
1,500  to  1,600.  .  . 
1,600  to  1,700.  .  . 
1,700  to  1,800.  .  . 
1,800  to  1,900.  .  . 
1,900  to  2,000.  .  . 
2,oco  and  above. 


Any  adequate  study  of  school  organization  involves  a  consider- 
ation of  the  distribution  of  children  by  ages  and  grades.  An  age 
grade  table,  such  as  is  given  below  in  Table  85  is  now  commonly 
found  in  school  reports. 


26o 


Educational  Administration 


Piox 

!     :  :  :  :  : 

i 

si->!0 

H 

sXog         :  :  :  :  : 

1    -a 

\        bo 

1      I^ox 

1      :  :  :  :  : 

^^"'     ■    !    i    ;    1  1 

sjjio      ;  ;  ;  ;  ; 

sXog     1       \   \   \   \   \ 

:  1  •     1  :::::! 

J3 

1      I^oj. 

1     :  :  :  :  : 

S|J!0 

1     :  :  :  :  : 

sXoa 

1     :  :  :  ;  ; 

: :    ;;;;;;! 

5 

iBjox    1     :  ;  :  : 

^^1  ■  —  —  :  •  1 

sjjio         :  :  :  : 

sxoa    1     :  :  :  : 

9 

■5 

Fiox 

1     i  iiJI 

^"    ;;;;;:;:! 

;4-i- 

si«0 

1     :  :  :     : 

o 

sXog 

^    ::::::::! 

J3 
§ 

l^ox 

1  -rr 

:  !  !  !  !  ;  !  !  ;  1 

^■fiO    i     :  :  1  :  : 

■  •  •  i 

sXog 

:iLl 

:;::::;::! 

F?oX 

:    ;  ; 

...  j 

|2 

SHSO 

:  :  : 

sXcg 

1  j_L 

1 

FloX 

si-iJO 

sXog 

■  ■  1  : 

Fiox 

.e 

si->!0 

sXcg 

fii 

;:::::::::     « 

o 

:  :  : :    "a  .  ;  .    i 

< 

>■"'■ 

;::::::;::    ^-^  \'a 
::::::::::    iSgiiS 

.     .     .     .  • O  o  «  O 

t^t^ttttiit^T.'Ct'C     Hc_c 

*0  t^oO  O  O  ►-  M  r^  -+■  1/-.0  r.'OO  O-  0 

School  Records  and  Reports 


261 


Instead  of  the  reports  which  give  the  average  daily  attendance 
of  pupils,  we  are  coming  to  have  reports  which  tell  the  whole 
truth  about  attendance  by  distributing  the  number  of  days  at- 
tended as  is  indicated  in  Table  86. 


TABLE  86 
Distribution  of  Attendance 


Time 


Attending  less  than 
"     10  davs 

10 
to 

davs.  .  .  . 

19  days 

20    ' 

^9   " 

30 

39   " 

40 

49 

50 
60 

59 

69   " 

70 
80 

79   " 
89   " 

90 

99   " 

100    ' 

109 

no 

119   " 

120    ' 

129   •• 

130 

139   " 

140    ' 

149 

150 
160 

159   " 
169   " 

170 
180 

179   '• 
189   " 

190    ' 

199   " 

Boys    <    Girls 


Per  Cent 
of  Whole 
Number 


Total  (equal  enrollment  for  term) 


In  like  manner  tables  which  give  enrollment,  promotions  and 
non-promotions  by  grade  and  by  causes,  failures  by  subjects  and 
by  grades,  withdrawals  by  ages,  by  grades,  and  by  causes,  are 
becoming  more  and  more  common  in  school  reports. 

On  the  side  of  fiscal  statistics,  we  are  beginning  to  have  reports 
which  attempt  to  analyze  expenditures  in  such  a  way  as  to  show 
the  total  cost  per  pupil  in  various  grades  or  lyprs  of  schools,  the 
cost  per  pupil  for  various  items,  such  as  instruction,  books  and 
supplies,  fuel,  and  the  like,  and  in  some  cases  a  careful  analysis 
and  comparison  is  made  of  costs  among  the  several  units  of  the 


262  Educational  Administration 

school  system,  as,  for  example,  upon  the  basis  of  school  buildings 
or  plants. 

In  the  newer  type  of  report,  it  is  common  to  illustrate  with 
charts,  diagrams,  and  pictures.  There  is  an  attempt  made  to  tell 
the  story  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  the  reader,  as  well  as  to 
convey  information  to  the  specialists.  In  some  cities  definite 
plans  are  made  for  publicity  through  the  newspaper,  or  in  some 
cases  by  issuing  partial  reports  on  special  subjects  of  interest 
from  time  to  time  throughout  the  school  year. 

Another  interesting  development  in  modern  reports  is  the 
appreciation  of  the  fact  that  it  may  not  be  wise  to  attempt  to 
cover  every  subject  with  equal  completeness  each  year.  It  may 
be  argued  that  the  best  report  is  the  one  which  specializes  upon 
some  one  aspect  of  the  school  problem  once  in  three  or  once  in 
five  years.  Of  course  it  is  necessary,  if  such  a  cycle  of  reports  is 
instituted,  to  give  the  essential  facts  each  year.  If,  for  example, 
the  following  cycle  were  followed,  first  year,  curriculum,  including 
special  schools  and  special  classes;  second  year,  finance;  third  year, 
pupils;  fourth  year,  teachers;  fifth  year,  buildings  and  equip- 
ment, the  report  would  undoubtedly  convey  certain  information 
concerning  each  of  these  fields  each  year.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
each  of  the  five  years  the  topic  which  was  considered  the  special 
order  for  the  year,  would  be  treated  exhaustively.  In  so  far  as 
statistics  or  reports  are  valuable  for  the  guidance  of  those  who 
administer  our  schools,  there  would  be  great  advantage  in  the 
adoption  of  some  such  plan  as  indicated  above.  To  have  an 
exhaustive  treatment  of  a  topic  once  in  five  years  would  be  just 
as  satisfactory  as  to  have  the  topic  treated  with  like  fullness  each 
year.  Since  space  and  effort  must  be  economized,  there  is  mani- 
festly a  very  great  advantage  in  treating  in  successive  years  sev- 
eral different  topics,  and  then  returning  to  treat  each  of  these 
topics  again  after  the  lapse  of  a  definite  period. 

Possibly  the  most  interesting  development  in  recent  years  is 


School  Records  and  Reports  263 

found  in  the  demand  for  uniformity  in  recording  and  reporting. 
Our  state  education  officers  have  demanded  uniform  reports 
within  the  city.  For  the  most  part,  these  reports  have  been  very 
inadequate,  and  have  been  thought  of  as  significant  mainly  in  so 
far  as  the  information  derived  was  used  as  a  basis  for  determin- 
ing the  aid  given  to  the  local  community  from  the  state.  The 
movement  for  uniformity,  which  has  taken  form  in  the  National 
Education  Association  in  the  appointment  of  a  special  com- 
mittee on  uniform  records  and  reports,  may  be  expected  in  time 
to  affect  the  state  officers  as  well  as  city  school  systems.  This 
committee  has,  since  its  appointment,  worked  in  cooperation  with 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  the  Census  Office,  and 
the  Association  of  School  Accounting  Officers.  These  four  bodies 
have  agreed  upon  a  uniform  program.  The  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  has  from  time  to  time  modified  its  schedules  in 
accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  joint  committee. 
The  Bureau  has  also  invited  state  and  city  superintendents  for 
conferences,  and  has  sent  out  its  forms  for  criticism  to  city  and 
state  officers  before  issuing  them  in  permanent  form.  It  is  to  be 
expected  that  from  this  campaign  of  education  there  will  come  a 
realization  of  the  importance  of  uniformity  as  well  as  greater 
interest  in  records  and  reports. 

Hope  for  more  adequate  recording  and  reporting  is  to  be  found, 
too,  in  the  increased  demand  made  upon  those  who  would  enter 
the  profession.  Courses  in  school  management  and  in  school 
supervision  and  administration  in  normal  schools  and  colleges, 
are  to-day  sending  students  into  the  field  with  some  appreciation 
of  statistical  method,  and  with  some  acquaintance  with  the  best 
practice  with  respect  to  records  and  reports.  The  movement  for 
adequate  records  and  reports  is  a  part  of  the  development  of  a 
science,  as  well  as  of  a  profession  of  education.  The  demand 
upon  the  part  of  the  public  for  such  adequate  information  is  even 
greater  than  the  demand  for  efficiency  in  teaching. 


PART  V 
SCHOOL  FINANCES 


§  22.  City  School  Expenditures 

The  financial  problem  in  connection  with  our  public  schools  is 
fundamental.  We  may  devise  improved  courses  of  study,  we 
may  provide  for  the  proper  training  of  teachers,  our  aim  may  be 
sound  and  our  method  well  grounded,  and  still  we  must  have  the 
money  to  build  and  properly  equip  and  maintain  buildings,  to 
provide  the  necessary  books  and  supplies,  to  hire  the  competent 
supervisors  and  teachers,  or  all  will  count  for  naught.  We  believe 
that  our  schools  have  advanced  in  this  country  during  the  past 
fifty  years,  and  we  know  that  along  with  this  advance  the  amount 
of  money  spent  for  public  education  has  increased  in  a  ratio  alto- 
gether out  of  proportion  to  the  number  of  people  educated.  Still 
further,  we  believe  that  those  sections  of  our  country  which 
to-day  spend  the  most  money  for  public  education  are  the  sections 
which  are  doing  the  best  work.  Especially  with  the  growth  of 
cities  and  the  great  increase  of  urban  population  has  the  amount 
of  money  spent  for  public  schools  grown  larger.  But  even  the 
great  increase  in  expenditure,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  ten-  or 
even  twenty-fold  during  the  past  fifty  years,  has  not  been  suffi- 
cient to  satisfy  the  demands  of  those  who  believe  in  the  efficacy 
and  necessity  of  public  education  in  our  modern  democracy. 

President  Eliot,  in  his  address  before  the  Connecticut  State 
Teachers'  Association  in  1902,  argued  for  more  liberal  expendi- 
tures for  public  education,  in  order  that  we  might  accomplish 
by  this  means  certain  desirable  ends  which  we  have  as  yet  failed 
to  attain.  He  sums  up  his  argument  in  one  part  of  his  address 
as  follows:  "My  first  argument  in  support  of  this  proposition  is 
that,  as  a  nation  and  on  the  whole,  in  spite  of  many  successes, 
we  have  met  with  many  failures  of  various  sorts  in  our  efforts  to 
educate  the  whole  people,  and  still  see  before  us  many  unsur- 

267 


268  Educational  Administration 

mounted  difiSculties.  It  is  indisputable  that  we  have  experienced 
a  profound  disappointment  in  the  results  thus  far  obtained  from 
a  widely  diffused  popular  education.  It  was  a  stupendous  un- 
dertaking at  the  start,  and  the  difficulties  have  increased  with 
every  generation.  Our  forefathers  expected  miracles  of  prompt 
enlightenment;  and  we  are  seriously  dissappointed  that  popular 
education  has  not  defended  us  against  barbarian  vices  like  drunk- 
enness and  gambling,  against  increase  of  crime  and  insanity,  and 
against  innumerable  delusions,  impostors,  and  follies.  We  ought 
to  spend  more  public  money  on  schools,  because  the  present 
expenditures  do  not  produce  all  the  good  results  which  were 
expected  and  may  reasonably  be  aimed  at."  ^ 

In  a  second  address  to  the  New  Hampshire  State  Teachers' 
Association  in  the  same  year.  President  Eliot  maintained  that 
more  money  should  be  given  to  the  public  schools,  because  of 
the  great  gains  that  have  been  made  in  public  education.  Some 
of  the  improvements  to  which  he  called  attention  were  the  estab- 
h'shment  of  kindergartens,  improvement  in  the  curricula  of  ele- 
mentary schools,  increase  in  the  number  of  high  schools,  improve- 
ment in  school  buildings,  new  kinds  of  schools  (manual  training, 
the  mechanic  arts  high  school,  the  evening  school,  and  the  vaca- 
tion school),  improvement  in  normal  schools,  improved  methods 
of  selecting  and  appointing  teachers,  pensions  for  teachers,  in- 
creased employment  of  educational  experts  in  supervising  and 
executive  functions  of  urban  school  systems,  the  increased  use  of 
high  schools,  the  introduction  of  the  costly  elective  system,  better 
university  teachers,  improved  professional  training,  increased 
opportunity  for  the  higher  education  of  women,  and  increased 
attention  given  to  the  welfare  of  the  body.  Every  one  of  these 
educational  improvements,  says  President  Eliot,  "has  been 
costly;  but  every  one  has  justified  itself  in  the  eyes  of  the  tax- 
payers, or  of  those  who  voluntarily  pay  for  it;  not  one  would  now 

^  Eliot,  More  Money  for  the  Public  Schools,  p.  23. 


City  School  Expenditures  269 

be  recalled,  and  the  total  result  encourages  the  expectation  that 
large  new  expenditures  would  commend  themselves  to  the  people 
at  the  start,  and  in  the  end  would  prove  to  be  both  profitable  in 
the  material  sense  and  civilizing  in  the  humane  sense. 

"You  have  doubtless  noticed  that  the  gains  I  have  reported 
are  chiefly  in  education  above  fourteen  years  of  age.  There  has 
been  improvement  in  the  first  eight  grades  since  1870,  but  it  is 
relatively  small.  Yet  the  great  majority  of  American  children 
do  not  get  beyond  the  eighth  grade.  Philanthropists,  social 
philosophers,  and  friends  of  free  institutions,  is  that  the  fit  educa- 
tional outcome  of  a  century  of  democracy  in  an  undeveloped 
country  of  immense  natural  resources?  Leaders  and  guides  of 
the  people,  is  that  what  you  think  just  and  safe?  People  of  the 
United  States,  is  that  what  you  desire  and  intend?"  ^ 

There  is  nothing  unusual  nor  radical  in  this  appeal  of  President 
Eliot.  In  almost  every  educational  journal  one  can  find  argu- 
ments for  increased  expenditures  for  teachers'  salaries.  In  many 
states  laws  have  been  passed  or  proposed  which  declare  that  all 
text-books  shall  be  furnished  free  to  children.  In  every  com- 
munity new  school  buildings  are  built  better  than  the  old.  More 
attention  is  given  to  proper  heating,  lighting,  and  ventilating.  All 
this  means  an  increase  in  school  expenditures.  Along  with  this 
great  increase  in  expenditure  and  with  the  demand  for  still  greater 
sums  of  money  for  public  education,  there  has  arisen  the  necessity 
for  greater  ability  in  the  handling  of  school  moneys,  and,  on  the 
part  of  the  tax-payers  who  furnish  the  money,  a  desire  to  know 
how  the  money  is  spent  and  what  results  are  obtained. 

Those  who  have  controlled  our  free  public  schools  have  always 
had  the  double  function  of  attending  to  the  business  affairs  of  the 
school  system,  as  well  as  looking  after  the  matter  of  instruction. 
In  the  early  days,  when  the  chief  expenditure  was  for  the  teacher's 
salary  and  there  were  very  few  other  items  of  expense,  it  was  a 

1  Eliot,  More  Money  for  the  Public  Scltools,  pp.  125-127. 


270  Educational  Administration 

comparatively  simple  matter  to  administer  the  finances  of  the 
then  small  schools  systems.  With  the  great  growth  of  cities  and 
school  systems,  together  with  the  enormous  increase  in  amount 
and  variety  of  expenditures,  the  problem  of  business  administra- 
tion has  become  very  complex.  This  demand  for  expert  ability 
in  dealing  with  the  business  affairs  of  the  schools  has  been  met 
in  different  ways.  In  some  instances  a  special  committee  of  the 
school  board  or  committee  has  been  given  charge  of  the  financial 
affairs  of  the  schools.  In  many  cases  the  superintendent  has  not 
only  supervised  instruction,  but  has  also  been  the  business  mana- 
ger for  the  school  system.  In  other  cases,  notably  in  Cleveland 
and  IndianapoHs,  a  special  executive  officer  has  been  provided 
to  look  after  the  business  affairs.  There  is  a  growing  feeling  that 
the  business  affairs  of  the  large  school  systems  demand  expert 
ability,  and  that  it  is  financially  profitable  for  a  large  city  to 
employ  a  business  director  to  look  after  the  financial  interests 
of  the  school  system.  The  Chicago  Commission,  appointed  in 
1898,  recommended  that  the  function  of  the  school  board  "be 
chiefly  legislative,  the  executive  work  being  delegated  to  the 
superintendent  and  business  manager."^  However  desirable  it 
may  be  to  have  a  special  executive  officer  whose  duty  it  shall  be 
to  look  after  the  business  affairs  of  the  schools,  the  fact  remains 
that  in  vastly  the  greater  majority  of  cities  of  over  ten  thousand 
inhabitants  this  work  is  now  done  by  the  school  board,  by  the 
sup>erintendent  of  schools,  or  by  the  board  and  the  superintendent 
in  cooperation  with  each  other. 

In  the  year  1899  there  reported  to  the  Department  of  Superin- 
tendence of  the  National  Educational  Association  the  Committee 
on  Uniform  Financial  Reports,  which  had  been  appointed  at  the 
previous  meeting.  Something  of  the  purpose  for  which  this  Com- 
mittee was  appointed,  as  well  as  their  recommendations,  may  be 
found  in  the  following  quotation: 

^  Report  of  the  Chicago  Educational  Commission. 


City  School  Expenditures  271 

"  While  local  conditions  enter  into  the  necessities  for  expense  in 
any  public  school  system,  yet  one  of  the  most  useful  means  of 
estimating  proper  expenditures  should  be  afforded  by  a  study 
of  the  financial  school  reports  of  other  similar  cities  or  districts. 
As  these  reports  are  at  present  made,  they  are  of  little  use  in  this 
respect.  Items  given  in  one  report  are  omitted  from  another. 
Items  of  income  and  outgo  are  differently  grouped  in  different 
reports,  and  the  statement  is  made  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  separate  the  items  for  the  purpose  of  re-classification.  In 
getting  the  cost  of  education  per  child,  different  items  are  put 
into  the  total  cost  of  education,  which  forms  the  dividend,  while 
the  divisor  is  sometimes  the  number  enrolled,  sometimes  the 
average  number  in  daily  membership,  sometimes  the  average 
number  in  daily  attendance. 

"One  of  the  chief  studies  of  a  wise  administrator  of  schools  is 
to  make  the  cost  of  education  per  child  as  low  as  is  consistent 
with  the  best  service.  Attention  to  this  and  to  the  comparative 
study  of  the  reports  for  a  period  of  years,  now  that  most  of  our 
school  systems  are  established  on  a  somewhat  similar  plan, 
should  give  an  idea  of  the  average  or  normal  cost  of  education 
per  child.  Having  this,  the  manager  of  schools  may  know  how 
expense  in  his  system  differs  from  this  normal  standard  and,  if 
not  normal,  why  it  is  above  or  below.  This  knowledge  cannot 
be  arrived  at,  however,  until  the  same  items  are  included  when 
comparing  cost  of  education,  and  the  same  divisor  is  used  when 
obtaining  the  average.  By  careful  comparative  study,  railroad 
men  know  the  average  cost  of  hauling  freight  per  ton  per  mile, 
and  the  cost  per  mile  of  transporting  a  passenger.  Those  admin- 
istering schools  should  be  as  well  informed  upon  the  cost  of  ed- 
ucation."^ 

During  the  past  five  years  there  has  been  much  discussion 
concerning  the  efficiency  of  those  charged  with  the  control  of  our 
1  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1899,  p.  345. 


272  Educational  Administration 

municipal  activities.  There  have  been  investigations  of  various 
city  departments,  budget  exhibits  and  surveys.  Our  schools 
have  come  in  for  their  share  of  these  investigations.  There  has 
developed  a  demand  for  adequate  records  and  reports,  for  the 
standardization  of  supplies  and  for  definite  units  of  cost  for  vari- 
ous educational  activities. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  department  of  superintendence  of  the 
National  Education  Association  in  Indianapolis  in  1910,  a  com- 
mittee on  uniform  records  and  reports  was  appointed.  This 
committee  made  its  final  report  at  St.  Louis  in  191 2.  Among 
other  recommendations,  a  form  for  reporting  fiscal  statistics  was 
submitted.  This  schedule  was  prepared  by  the  committee  of 
the  department  of  superintendence  acting  in  cooperation  with 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  the  Census  Office,  and 
the  National  Association  of  School  Accounting  Officers.  Many 
of  the  more  progressive  cities  have  already  introduced  systems 
of  accounting  which  will  make  possible  a  report  at  least  as  de- 
tailed as  is  called  for  by  the  form  recommended.  This  schedule 
is  sent  to  all  of  the  larger  cities  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  in 
asking  for  a  report  of  fiscal  statistics.^ 

During  the  years  1903-1905  inclusive  the  writer  made  an 
investigation  of  city  school  expenditures.  The  data  which  fur- 
nish the  basis  of  this  study  were  secured  from  fifty-eight  cities  of 
between  ten  and  fifty  thousand  inhabitants,  located  in  Massachu- 
setts, Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey. 
To  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  each  city  the  following  blank 
form  was  sent. 

'  Tliis  schedule  will  be  found  on  |)j).  255  258. 


City  School  Expenditures 


273 


TEACHERS   COLLEGE 

Columbia  University 

New  York 

Data  for  research  hi  Educational  Administration.     School  Expenditures  for  the 

year  190      and  190     ,  in  the  city  of state  of 


I.    Current  Expenses: 

1.  Salaries  for  supervision  (Sup)erintendent,  Assistant,  Deputy, 

or  Associate  Superintendents,  and  Principals) 

2.  Salaries  for  business  administration  (salaries  of  members  of 

the  Board  of  Education,  Business  Manager,  Superinten- 
dent of  Buildings  and  Grounds,  Clerks  to  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, etc.,  etc.) INoT 

3.  Salaries  of  Janitors  (number  and  aggregate  of  theirj 

salaries) .... 

4.  Salaries  of  Matrons  or  Maids  in  connection  with  Kin- 

dergartens and  Baths  (number   and    aggregate   of 
their  salaries) 

5.  Salaries  of  Truant  Officers  (number  and  aggregate  of 

their  salaries) 

6.  Salaries  for  Teaching: 

Number  of  Elementary  School  (Primary  and  Gram- 
mar) Teachers  and  aggregate  of  their  salaries.  .  .  . 

Number  of  High  School  Teachers  and  aggregate  of 
their  salaries. 

Number  of  Kindergarten  Teachers  and  aggregate  of 
their  salaries 

Number  of  Evening  School  Teachers  and  aggregate 
of  their  salaries 

Number  of  Truant  School  Teachers  and  aggregate 
of  their  salaries 

Number  of  Teachers'  Training  School  Teachers  and 
aggregate  of  their  salaries 

Number  of  Special  Teachers  or  supervisors  of  special 
subjects  (Manual  Training,  Cooking,  Sewing, 
Drawing,  Music,  Nature  Study,  Penmanship, 
Physical  Education,  etc.)  and  aggregate  of  their 
salaries 


Number    of    Vacation    School    and    Play    Ground! 

Teachers  and  aggregate  of  their  salaries '  •  ■  •  ■ 

What  are  the  daily  wages  of  (i)  Carpenters,  $ 

(2)  Bricklayers,  $ (3)  Day  Laborers,  $ 

in  your  city? 

7.  Text-books,   including  copy-  and  drawing-books  and  re- 

pairs to  books 

8.  Supplies  consumed  by  pupils   (paper,  pencils,  ink,  chalk, 

pens  and  pen-holders,  erasers,  laboratory,  manual  train- 
ing, cooking,  and  kindergarten  supplies,  etc.,  etc.) 

9.  Janitors'  Supplies  (brooms,  brushes,  towels  and  washing  of 

towels,  toilet  paper,  soap,  etc.,  etc.) 

10.  Supplies   for   Board   of   Education,   Superintendents',   and 
Principals'  offices 


274  Educational  Administration 

TEACHERS  CO'LLEGY.— continued 


11.  Fuel 

12.  Light  and  Power 

13.  Water 

14.  Ordinary  repairs  to  Buildings  and  Grounds. 

15.  Rent 

16.  School  Census 

17.  Transportation  of  Pupils 

18.  Insurance 

19.  Freight  and  Expressage 

20.  Printing  and  Advertising 

21.  Telegraph,  Postage,  etc 

22.  Telephone 

23.  Olher  Current  Expenses: 


Are  books  furnished  free  to  indigents? to  all  stu- 
dents?   What  supplies  are  furnished  free  to  in 

digents? 


.  to  all  students? . 


II.    Plant  and  Permanent  Equipment: 

1.  New  buildings  and  sites,  furniture  and  furni.^hings /or  new 

buildings,  and  permanent  improvements  to  buildings  and 
grounds 

2.  Furniture  (exclusive  of  that  put  in  new  buildings) 

3.  Permanent  equipment   or   apparatus  (scientific  apparatus, 

tools  or  apparatus  for  manual  training  and  cooking,  type- 
writers for  commercial  departments,  maps,  charts,  globes, 
etc.,  etc.) 

4.  Reference  and  Library  Books 

III.  Paid  on  Principal  of  Bonded  Debt 

IV.  Paid  on  Principal  of  Loans 

V.    Paid  for  Interest 

VI.    All  other  Expenditures: 

(If  important  expenditures  have  been  omitted  in  the  above 
classification,  will  you  kindly  itemize  such  expendi- 
tures below.) 


Total  Expenditures  for  the  year: 

VII.    Bonded  School  Debt  at  the  end  of  the  year 

VIII.    Paid  for  Evening  Schools  [total  current  expenses,  included  in 

(I)  above] 

IX.    Paid  for  Teachers  Training  School  [total  current  expenses,  in- 
cluded in  (I)  above] 


City  School  Expenditures  275 

The  study  based  upon  the  data  collected,  fifty-eight  cities  from 
which  reports  were  received  the  first  year  and  from  thirty  of  the 
same  cities  for  which  a  second  year's  report  was  received  is  sum- 
marized in  the  tables  and  diagrams  which  follow.^ 

Of  the  fifty-eight  cities  reporting  the  first  year,  thirty  were 
able  to  report  their  total  expenditure  under  the  classification 
given,  without  resorting  to  the  use  of  the  ambiguous  heading 
"miscellaneous."  Of  the  remaining  twenty-eight  cities,  sixteen 
reported  less  than  2%  under  the  head  "miscellaneous";  ten 
others  reported  less  than  5%;  and  the  remaining  cities  reported 
5.14%  and  6.75%  for  unclassified  expenditures.  For  the  second 
year,  of  the  thirty  cities  reporting,  eighteen  report  nothing  under 
"miscellaneous";  and  of  the  remaining  twelve,  eight  report  1% 
or  less,  three  2%,  and  one  3.76%  under  this  head. 

In  order  to  compare  the  expenditures  in  the  different  cities 
with  but  two  years'  data,  it  seemed  best  to  base  all  comparisons 
upon  the  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation,  that  is,  the  expen- 
ditures which  are  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  schools 
going,  together  with  the  amount  spent  for  keeping  the  plant  in 
proper  repair.  Under  this  head  we  included  furniture  put  into 
old  buildings,  that  is,  new  furniture  put  in  to  replace  old;  and  also 
money  spent  for  apparatus  and  for  reference  and  library  books. 
These  expenditures,  we  beHeve,  are  properly  classified  as  expen- 
ditures for  maintenance  and  operation,  since  they  seldom  repre- 
sent any  very  large  increase  in  permanent  equipment.  In  the 
printed  form  given  above,  they  were  placed  under  "plant  and  per- 
manent equipment,"  because  the  writer  beHeved  that  it  was 
customary  to  place  them  there  and  that  proper  returns  could  be 
most  easily  secured  by  classifying  them  in  this  way.  To  have 
taken  into  consideration  the  amount  spent  for  new  buildings  or 
grounds,  or  for  permanent  improvements,  would  have  been 

1  The  complete  original  data  will  be  found  in  Strayer's  "City  School  Expenditures" 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College.  Columbia  University. 


276  Educational  Administration 

unfair  to  some  cities,  because  in  some  cases  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  such  expenditures  is  met  by  an  issue  of  bonds  than  in 
others.  The  item  of  interest  is  not  included  in  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance and  operation  for  a  similar  reason.  This  item  is  some- 
times included  in  the  public  school  budget,  while  in  other  cases 
it  is  paid  by  the  city.  On  this  point  the  National  Educational 
Association   Committee  on  Uniform  Financial  Reports   says: 

"Expenditures  seem  to  fall  into  three  classes:  the  usual  current 
expenditures  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  schools;  expendi- 
tures for  sites,  buildings,  permanent  improvements  and  equip- 
ment; other  expenditures  which,  for  various  reasons,  are  not  put 
in  either  of  the  two  preceding  classes. 

"For  the  purpose  of  this  report  the  first  of  these  classes  is  by 
far  the  most  important,  for  it  would  probably  be  conceded  that 
from  this  item  of  current  expense  should  be  determined  the  cost 
of  education  per  child,  the  most  important  item  to  be  shown. "^ 

After  having  determined  the  classification  to  be  used,  and 
that  the  total  expenditures  for  maintenance  and  operation  should 
serve  as  the  basis  for  comparison,  the  question  which  next  arises 
is,  "How  shall  the  separate  items  be  compared  as  among  the 
different  cities?"  It  has  been  common  to  compare  the  expendi- 
tures for  different  cities  on  the  basis  of  the  cost  per  pupil  in  daily 
attendance.  We  shall  use  this  method,  and,  in  addition,  it  seems 
well  to  compare  the  different  items  on  a  sHghtly  different  basis, 
namely,  the  cost  per  pupil  based  upon  a  figure  half-way  between 
the  average  daily  attendence  and  the  average  daily  enrollment. 
In  discussing  this  point,  the  National  Educational  Association 
Committee  on  Uniform  Financial  Reports  says: 

"For  many  reasons  No.  39 "  (average  number  in  daily  member- 
ship, all  schools)  "seems  the  most  suitable  divisor.  If  computed 
in  a  uniform  manner,  the  figures  showing  number  in  average 
daily  membership  would  most  nearly  show  the  requirements  for 

1  Report  of  the  National  Education  Association,  1899,  p.  347. 


City  School  Expenditures  277 

school  rooms,  furniture,  supplies,  and  teachers.  But  it  is  not  true 
that  these  figures  are  obtained  by  the  same  process,  or  based  upon 
the  same  facts,  in  the  different  school  systems.  Usage  varies 
so  in  computing  membership  in  different  schools — pupils  in  some 
cases  being  counted  as  members  of  the  schools,  when  in  other 
cities  the  same  state  of  facts  would  cause  the  child  to  be  con- 
sidered as  no  longer  a  member  of  the  school — that  fair  compari- 
son is  apparently  not  practicable  by  the  use  of  this  divisor. 

"Your  committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  a  divisor  as  little  sub- 
ject to  misunderstanding  as  possible,  and  one  based  upon  facts 
which  are  obtained  in  the  same  way  everywhere,  is  of  the  first 
importance.  The  members  believe  that  this  is  provided  by  item 
40,  average  number  in  daily  attendance,  all  schools,  and  we  have, 
therefore,  made  that  item  the  divisor  to  be  used,  in  connection 
with  items  12  and  13,  to  obtain  what  shall  be  known  as  the  'cost 
of  education.'  "^ 

The  school  must  provide  teachers,  buildings,  and  equipment 
for  more  than  the  average  daily  attendance,  and  yet  it  is  seldom 
that  provision  is  made  for  a  number  equal  to  the  average  daily 
enrollment.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  figure  half-way  be- 
tween the  two  is  a  better  figure  than  either  of  the  others.  It  was 
impossible  to  secure  the  figures  for  the  average  daily  enrollment 
in  some  cases,  and  for  this  reason  the  average  cost  per  pupil  for 
the  first  and  second  year  will  be  based  upon  the  average  daily 
attendance,  even  though  we  do  not  believe  it  is  so  good  a  figure 
as  the  other. 

Still  another  basis  for  comparison  recommends  itself — the 
apportionment  of  money  spent  for  specific  purposes  expressed 
in  per  cents  of  the  total  expenditures  for  maintenance  and  opera- 
tion. This  last  classification  offers  a  particularly  interesting 
basis  for  comparison  and  is  entirely  free  from  obscurity.  The 
question  Is  simply  one  of  distribution  of  the  money  that  is  spent 
^Report  of  the  Naiional  Educational  AssQcicUion,  1899,  pp.  349"352. 


278 


Edticational  Administration 


among  the  several  items  of  the  budget.  Just  as  an  individual 
may  spend  too  much  for  clothes,  for  food,  for  books,  or  for  amuse- 
ment, in  the  same  manner  it  is  possible  for  a  city  to  spend  too 
great  a  proportion  of  its  money  for  janitors,  for  fuel,  for  school 
supplies,  or  even  for  supervision. 

TABLE  87 
The  average  of  the  amounts  spent  for  each  item  for  two  years  expressed  as  per 
cents  of  the  average  total  expenditure  for  two  years.    Thirty  cities,  for  the  school 
years  1902-03  and  1 903 -04 . 


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0 

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72.5 

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27 

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7 

62.8 

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30 

70.5 

2.6 

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3 

67.8 

4 

6 

8 

3 

31 

64.0 

2.7 

6 

6 

61.2 

II 

2 

7 

8 

32 

65.4 

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4 

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2.8 

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3 

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35 

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55 

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10.3 

8 

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3-8 

4 

4 

4 

4 

57 

74-5 

9-7 

5 

I 

64.8 

3 

9 

4 

2 

City  School  Expenditures 


279 


TABLE  88 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  number  used  as  a  divisor 
is  the  figure  half-way  between  the  average  daily  attendance  and  the  average  daily 
enrollment.    Forty-eight  cities,  for  the  school  year  1902-03. 


^ 

e 

.2 

e 

I 

ber  of  Ci 
Total 

a 

'ja 

u 

£2 

0 

0 

ta 
0 

c 

X 

1 

3 

& 
3 
to 

11.5 

^,2  = 

3 

1 
1 

1 

a 

s 

H 

3 

to 

1— > 

C9 

5 
H 

H 

en 

0 

■5 

•-> 

JB 

I  34.18 

21.38 

-99 

•17 

2.26 

14 

1-75 

1-13 

•30 

•03 

1.56 

.16 

2  26.48 

16.69 

.88 

■07 

15 

1. 17 

-29 

•13 

4-39 

.12 

.06 

3  27.09 

18.47 

1.08 

I. 91 

I 

.66 

•27 

1.27 

4  30.91 

19-73 

3-33 

.11 

2.21 

08 

I  05 

.89 

.  22 

1.48 

•07 

.12 

5  32.30 

23.70 

.72 

-17 

2.13 

25 

I 

•94 

•05 

.08 

1.97 

.16 

6  26.80 

19.50 

1 .12 

I. 41 

I 

-75 

•05 

•03 

1 .  10 

.07 

7  21.19 

12.65 

1.68 

.  10 

2.01 

18 

■53 

■79 

.18 

•78 

8  29.80 

17.29 

4.04 

I. 81 

37 

1.48 

•44 

•OS 

.  10 

1-74 

•05 

.10 

9  29.29 

19.50 

.82 

•32 

2.19 

15, 

1.96 

2.75 

.16 

10  41.21 

30.40 

.70 

.28 

2.44 

19 

-95 

1-34 

.10 

•17 

I  75 

.08 

.22 

II  27.90 

13.90 
18.12 
15  33 

3.23 
2.58 
4.96 

•31 
.18 

2,56 
2.14 
I  .96 

31 

07 
27 

I. 

88 

1.70 
1.99 
1.88 

•17 
•05 

12  28.28 

.82 
-74 

1 .06 

13  28.53 

.81 

•07 

1.6 

14  27.35 

17.02 

1-37 

1.86 

07 

-85 

.68 

.07 

2.24 

•14 

15  24.33 

17.20 

•52 

.12 

1-47 

04 

-97 

■97 

.06 

1.64 

•07 

16  27.67 

18.65 

2.16 

1.77 

38 

.80 

•92 

1 .40 

17  34-88 

21 .90 

2-73 

.21 

2-45 

14 

1 .02 

1.07 

.01 

2.56 

.28 

18  34.59 

24-39 
17-50 

1-55 
•95 

.18 

2.35 
1 .90 

08 
04 

2 

.62 

2.23 
2.00 

19  27.78 

1.32 

•79 

.11 

20  22.53 

16.13 

.48 

1. 16 

15 

•54 

•35 

•  04 

2.23 

•03 

.20 

28  28. 44 

18.55 

I .  II 

•36 

2.05 

18 

I 

.07 

2.14 

I 

•29 

29  27.91 

17.20 

.81 

1-95 

09 

I 

.91 

•32 

I  43 

.01 

.08 

28o 


Educational  Administration 


■TABLE   88    {Continued) 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  number  used  as  a  divisor 
is  the  figure  half-way  between  the  average  daily  attendance  and  the  average  daily 
enrollment.    Forty-eight  cities,  for  the  school  year  1902-03. 


U 
1 

c 
2 
H 

1 

«•£ 

0 

i 

H 

s 

§2 

Apparat 

Reference 
Library  B( 

I 

1.80 

01 

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.10 

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.10 

•56 

•  14 

•  45  02 

2 

1.42 

04 

.04 

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■13 

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3 

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1.23 

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4 

1.03 

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■03 

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5 

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.  10 

.16  .08 

6 

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.01 

.19 

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9 

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2.18 

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.  10 

.01 

II 

I.  19 

14 

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.26 

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14 

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15 

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16 

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18 

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.24 

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.08 

.02 

.02 

19 

1.58 

.06 

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.16 

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20 

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08 

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.01 

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28 

13 

.12 

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•83 

.22 

■33 

29 

2 

98 

.06 

•34 

•  13 

.10 

•33  -I? 

City  School  Expenditures 


281 


TABLE  88   (Continued) 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  number  used  as  a  divisor 
is  the  figure  half-way  between  the  average  daily  attendance  and  the  average  daily 
enrollment.    Forty-eight  cities,  for  the  school  year  1902-03. 


ber  of  City 
Total 

bo 

15 

a 
.0 

1 

0 

'S 

0 
a 

K 

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c 

3 

1 

0. 
0, 

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0 

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a 

1 

30  35-41 

23.92 

.96 

26 

2.24 

32 

.61 

.98 

24 

1-75 

.07 

31  26.82 

15.20 

.76 

27 

1-77 

30 

I. 

50 

336 

.09 

32  33-5° 

18.52 

1-25 

29 

1.88 

17 

-36 

-63 

13 

-63 

2.19 

•  25 

33  24.13 

16.31 

3.08 

34 

1.48 

09 

-17 

04 

■03 

I  20 

.04 

34  35  20 

22.65 

1-52 

42 

2.82 

55 

.02 

-32 

21 

•14 

3-54 

.08 

35  24.08 

17-55 

.48 

17 

1-57 

17 

.02 

09 

.06 

1.36 

.06 

37  18.5s 

10.96 

3-13 

37 

.98 

09 

-38 

1 .11 

38  22.68 

14-65 

1.69 

•87 

37 

-05 

-09 

IS 

•05 

I. 

25 

39  30  87 

19.24 

3-42 

30 

1,61 

24 

■54 

24 

2. 

03 

40  33.61 

21.08 

1.36 

43 

1-33 

28 

-58 

1 .40 

II 

2. 

95 

■  24 

41  23.77 

15-41 

I  .00 

44 

1 .09 

02 

I 

-35 

03 

.01 

1.44 

.11 

.21 

42  28.23 

15-31 

4-39 

32 

1.48 

32 

1.42 

1 .11 

16 

I . 

58 

■32 

43  25.14 

16.39 

.89 

16 

1.67 

20 

-47 

-43 

17 

•03 

2.23 

.09 

15 

44  25.50 

16.22 

1. 16 

16 

1-54 

22 

-30 

03 

•39 

2-55 

.12 

.21 

45  27.14 

18.20 

.61 

05 

1-45 

18 

1.48 

■33 

08 

-05- 

1-03 

-  25 

46  39.40 

24.23 

4-47 

29 

1. 81 

20 

1-13 

.68 

37 

.18 

1-55 

•05 

-13 

47  18.33 

5-II 
12.28 

2.98 
2.06 

66 
23 

1-55 
1.26 

16 

28 

.61 
.90 

51 

2-95 
1 .29 

.  II 

■05 

.04 

48  2 I . 09 

.29 

05 

■04 

.11 

49  20.93 

13-40 

2-54 

14 

•85 

28 

1.09 

.21 

14 

.07 

I-I5 

.04 

51  29.83 

19.60 

4.14 

30 

1.63 

20 

-56 

.14 

07 

.02 

1.76 

-03 

53  29.61 

19.82 
35-07 

3-62 
5-64 

21 

67 

2.04 
2.92 

1-44 

.29_ 

■17 

•83 

54  52.75 

2.02 

2.40 

42 

2.61 

-56 

55  i9-6i 

12.08 

.66 

II 

1 .04 

22 

I 

.09 

1.09 

.11 

56  27.12 

14.82 

4.42 

22 

2.28 

08 

-43 

•50 

32 

.46 

1. 18 

.11 

57  51-49 

33 -Sf* 

5-II 

96 

2.43 

1-35 

2.24 

II 

.11 

2.02 

.22 

58  20.38 

12.83 

1.97 

13 

1. 11 

I 

•32 

26 

•13 

.66 

•05 

.09 

282 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  88   {Continued) 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  number  used  as  a  divisor 
is  the  figure  half-way  between  the  average  daily  attendance  and  the  average  daily 
enrollment.    Forty-eight  cities,  for  the  school  year  1902-03. 


>> 

"0 

S 

3'^ 

u 

a 

2 

a 

3 

c 
.0 

a 

c 

B 

5 
1 

2 

to 
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Reference  and 
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30 

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49 

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12 

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27 

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22  .22 

58 

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03 

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03  .40 

City  School  Expenditures 


283 


TABLE  89 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
in  daily  attendance  is  used  as  the  divisor.  Fifty-seven  cities,  for  the  school  year 
1902-03. 


8      I 


1  35.64  22.30  1.03 

2  28.00  17.60    .93 

3  28.06  19. 10  I . 12 

4  31.90  20.35  3-44 

5  33  27  24.41      .74 


6  27.65 

7  21.61 

8  31.16 

9  3101 
ID  43.23 


20. 10  1.15 
12.91  I. 71 
18. 10  4.23 
20.63  .86 

31-91   -73 


11  29.01  14.42  3.35 

12  29.20  18.75  2.60 

13  29.56  15.90  5.14 

14  28.75  17  89  1.44 

15  25.35  17-91   -55 


16  28.41 

17  36.00 

18  35.70 

19  28.90 

20  23.16 


19.17  2.22 
22.60  2.82 
25.17  1.60 
18.16  .98 
16.58  .49 


21  24.50  16.90  3.08 

22  8 .  94  6 .  63   .II 

23  12.85  3-69  3-78 

24  15.26  9.87  1.41 

25  31.00  21.67  2.45 


18.37  5-47 
1^.11  2.82 


26  32.67 

27  26.96 

28  30.30  19.77  I -19 

29  29.50  18.21  .86 


.18  2.35 
.07 

1.98 
.11  2.27 
.18  2.19 

1-45 
.11  2.05 

1.89 
■33  2.32 
.29  2.56 

-32  2.65 

2.21 

.19  2.03 

I-9S 
•12  1.53 

1.82 
•22  2.53 

2-43 
.19  1.97 

1.19 

-OS  1.44 

-37 

.08  1 .92 

.23  .96 

1-53 

. 19  1 .92 
1-95 

-39  2.19 
2. 06 


,14  I 
16  1 


.08  1 
.26 


-39  I 

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,83  1.18 

■24  -31 
1 .72 

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1.99 


54 

•55 


-OS 
.08 


-03 

.20 
.09 


.66 
.64 


.81 

.46 

2.08 


•99  1-39   -12 


•38 
-53 

.22 
.  11 

•  99 


1.14 
2.01 


-04 


.08 


-03 


10 


32 

I 

94 

07 

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1.09 

28 

-77 

•83 

•07 

07 

.89 

•71 

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1 .01 

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39 

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71 

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4.70 
1.32 

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1.82 

2.QI 

18  1.84 


17 

13  -07 


07  .12 
16 


07 

05  .10 

-17 

II  .23 


1.77 
2.05 
1.95  .05  .16 

2.50 
1.71   .07 


29 


1-44 
2.64 
2.30 
2.08 
2 . 29   .03 


33 


21 


09  .05   .94  .05  .04 

13  .02   .37  .03 

1.27  .08 
01   .01  1.03  .07  .14 

03  .05  2.04  .04  .25 

04  .03  1.4s  .05  .18 
48 1.25  .12 

2.28  1.38 


■3i 


I. 51  .01  .08 


284 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   89    {Contimied) 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
in  daily  attendance  is  used  as  the  divisor.  Fifty-seven  cities,  for  the  school  year 
1902-03. 


01 

to 

■^ 

^ 

"o 

a 

3  '^ 

0 

■3 

'3 

c 

3 

c 

-  -a  u 

a  M 

1,1 

% 

3 

Si 

Cm 

& 

1 

3 

a 

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ft 
H 

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1.88 

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10 

.16 

•  56 

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2 

1.50 

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•05 

•83 

01 

.14 

•07 

3 

1.09 

1.28 

■IS 

4 

1.06 

•05 

.02 

■05 

•04 

.01 

09 

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.27 

5 

-33 

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•34 

01 

.11 

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6 

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•  41 

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01 

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7 

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8 

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01 

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1.96 

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12 

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06 

13 

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•03 

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14 

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01 

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02 

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18 

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•25 

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02 

19 

1 .64 

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■OS 

■OS 

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01 

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•35 

20 

•85 

.09 

■07 

•05 

01 

.22 

21 

•  94 

•14 

.02 

.01 

.01 

01 

.19 

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22 

•59 

.01 

.02 

.01 

.06 

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23 

.90 

.06 

•03 

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01 

.19 

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24 

•45 

•  03 

32 

•05 

.01 

02 

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•13 

25 

1^83 

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•25 

.01 

■25 

.01 

14 

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26 

1. 12 

.19 

.10 

•03 

•44 

•03 

.  10 

02 

01 

17  I. OS 

27 

•63 

■54 

.10 

•03 

.08 

1. 18 

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44  ^27 

28 

•  14 

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05 

.89 

•23 

•35 

29 

3-15 

.07 

•36 

.14 

.11 

■35  ■iS 

City  School  Expenditures 


285 


TABLE  89   (Continued) 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
in  daily  attendance  is  used  as  the  divisor.  Fifty-seven  cities,  for  the  school  year 
1902-03. 


a  a 

^     ^     rf, 


30  37  32     25.25  I. 01      .27  2.36     .34     .64     1.04 


,26 


1.85     .07 


31  27.90 

15-75 

79 

28 

1.84 

32 

I 

•56 

3  49 

.09 

32  34-49 

19.07 

I 

29 

30 

1-93 

17 

•37 

.64 

-13 

.64 

2.25 

-25 

33  •4-85 

16.78 

3 

18 

35 

1-52 

09 

•17 

.04 

•03 

1.24 

.04 

34  35  96 

23-15 

I 

56 

44 

2.92 

56 

.02 

■33 

.  22 

.09 

3-6i 

.08 

35  24.52 

17.87 

49 

17 

1 .60 

18 

.02 

.  10 

.06 

I  39 

.07 

36  31-94 

18.88 

5 

54 

25 

I .  II 

10 

.  21 

.07 

.02 

1.66 

.22 

.18 

37  19-26 

II  .40 
15.21 

3 
I 

25 

75 

39 

1 .01 
.91 

09 
40 

•  40 

•05 

i^i5 
1.30 

38  23.56 

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.  10 

•IS 

39  32  01 

19.94 

3 

55 

31 

1.67 

25 

-56 

•25 

2. 

II 

40  34.79 

21.90 

I 

42 

44 

1.38 

29 

.60 

1-45 

.11 

3- 

06 

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41  24.65 

15-99 

I 

03 

46 

1-13 

02 

I 

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1.49 

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42  28.50 

15-47 

4 

43 

32 

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59 

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43  26  09 

17.00 

92 

17 

1-73 

21 

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2.31 

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44  26.18 

16.69 

I 

19 

16 

1-58 

23 

-31 

•03 

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2.62 

-13 

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45  28.53 

19.14 

64 

05 

1-53 

19  I 

-55 

•35 

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1.08 

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46  41.52 

25-53 

4 

71 

31 

1.91 

21  I 

.19 

•72 

39 

.19 

1.63 

-05 

.14 

47  20.71 

5-78 
13.29 

3 

2 

37 
23 

75 
25 

1-75 
1.36 

18 
30 

.69 
-97 

__i^5_7__ 

3  34 
1-39 

.12 
-05 

.04 

48  22  75 

■31 

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.04 

.12 

49  2  3  20 

14.20 

2 

69 

15 

.89 

30  I 

-15 

.22 

•15 

.08 

1 .22 

04 

51  32.05 

21-05 

4 

45 

32 

1.76 

21 

■59 

■15 

•15 

.02 

1-79 

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52  26.39 

13-81 
20.49 
30.60 

I 
3 

5 

75 
74 
87 

19 
21 
69 

1.84 
2. II 
3-05 

16 

2 

•79 

.92 
1-49 

.16 

.12 

•29 
.18 

1.19 

53  30.61 

•85 

54  54  72 

.  It 

2-50 

•43 

2.72 

•58 

55  20.50 

12.61 

69 

II 

1.09 

23 

I 

.14 

1. 14 

.11 

56  28.01 

15-33 

4 

56 

22 

2.35 

08 

•45 

-52 

■33 

•47 

1 .22 

.11 

57  51 -25 

33  -  20 

5 

09 

96 

2.42 

I 

-34 

2.23 

.  II 

.11 

2.01 

.22 

58  21.51 

13-55 

2 

08 

14 

1. 17 

I 

-39 

.28 

•14 

.69 

.06 

.10 

286 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   89    {Continued) 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
in  daily  attendance  is  used  as  the  divisor.  Fifty-seven  cities,  for  the  school  year 
1902-03. 


c 
0 

t!  c 

Ix 

73  0 

C  to 

1| 

0  3 

3 

M  !; 

O.0h 

B 

2  M 

•S^ 

C 

£w 

£< 

5  S 


»;j 


30     2 . 75 


•31 


•34     -07    .42 


31 

1.79 

.10 

.11 

.08 

IS 

.04 

1 .01 

•35 

.18 

32 

367 

•13 

.18 

.06 

27 

.10 

1 .  29 

.86 

•21  .65 

33 

1. 17 

.07 

.06 

.01 

06 

•03 

.02 

, 

34  . 

•52 

.19 

.18 

•52 

44 

.07 

•  17 

.61 

•2.f 

35 

.68 

.04 

.09 

.02 

16 

.02 

.06 

■99 

•14 

.16  .21 

36 

.72 

.10 

•33 

.06 

02 

.02 

.08 

1-57 

.41 

.19  .27 

37 

•45 

.04 

II 

•63 

■ii 

38 

2.32 

•OS 

.27 

.02 

14 

.02 

•31 

■05 

.18  .29 

39 

i^36 
1 .21 

•05 

.06 
•51  ' 

_5P_ 

.04 

•45 

.iS 

1.36 

40 

•03 

70 

.76 

41 

.04 

■45 

.06 

•03 

•17 

•05 

06 

.04 

•05 

1.27 

•15 

•36 

42 

.80 

•32 

.02 

08 

.02 

•05 

■32 

.16  .10 

43 

•65 

.04 

.  II 

.07 

.01 

.01 

13 

.02 

.01 

.69 

•17 

.22  .17 

44 

1. 12 

.60 

•32 

•05 

07 

.01 

•15 

.18  .10 

45 

1.98 

•32 

.04 

25 

•03 

.68 

•13 

•OS  .14 

46 

1.07 

1.49 

.11 

.08 

22 

.04 

.19 

.04 

•58 

■23   25 

47 

2.03 

•  14 

•37 

23 

.07 

.42 

•04  .13 

48 

•34 

•56 

.06 

.  II 

.04 

36 

.01 

•73 

.08 

.05  .06 

49 

.29 

•05 

-13 

.04 

03 

.01 

.06 

.20 

.20  .11 

51 

•59 

.02 

•29 

.02 

06 

.01 

•05 

•03 

•25  25 

52 

3-95 

•31 

.18 

21 

■03 

•47 

.26  .05 

53 

1. 00 

•  42 

54 

2.30 

•25 

■43 

.20 

25 

.04 

.20 

.66 

•25  ] 

.21  .20 

55 

•57 

2.01 

•29 

•29  ^23 

56 

150 

.16 

08 

.07 

■25 

•17 

.06  .11 

57 

2.23 

.11 

.11 

13 

.07 

•45 

.22  .22 

S8 

1. 12 

.24 

.03 

03 

.06 

.03  .42 

City  School  Expenditures 


287 


TABLE  90 

The  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
in  daily  attendance  is  used  as  the  divisor.  Thirty  of  the  cities  which  reported  in 
1902-03  ref>orting  for  the  year  1903-04. 


>> 

S 

T3 

u 

1.1 

M 

g 

"0 

k4 

0 

bCp 
c  > 

1 

1 

t/2 

SI 

3 

C 

1 

2; 

H 

H 

s> 

a 

>-> 

b 

5 

34  08 

25-51 

24.77 

-74 

2.31 

1.29 

2-75 

•33 

6 

24.26 

15.80 

14.66 

1-14 

1. 61 

1.63 

1.91 

2.18 

8 

32.36 

23-65 

22.58 

1.07 

1.86 

1.83 

1.78 

1. 12 

13 

34-21 

25-52 

20.91 

4.61 

1-94 

1.82 

2.25 

.82 

^4 

28.79 

19.96 

18.58 

1.38 

2.28 

1.63 

1.36 

15 

24.65 

18.71 

14.88 

3-83 

1-57 

1.36 

1   44 

.69 

16 

28.18 

21.32 

19.23 

2.09 

1.90 

I-51 

1-99 

.82 

20 

23.06 

17.40 

16.71 

.69 

1.26 

1.21 

1.94 

•SS 

27 

26.25 

18.23 

14-57 

367 

2.07 

1.62 

-58 

•97 

28 

29.38 

24.72 

20.63 
15-54 

19.50 
15-78 

1-13 
-76 

2.08 
2.08 

.87 

1-97 

3 

94 

29 

1.49 

1.26 

30 

38.70 

26.99 

26.00 

•99 

2.42 

1.67 

357 

31 

30.92 

21  .17 

20.37 

.80 

2.04 

3-12 

2.82 

32 

28.00 

20.11 

15-52 

4-59 

2.04 

.78 

1 .69 

1 .02 

34 

3154 

21.62 

20.23 

I  39 

3-37 

1-13 

1.61 

35 

29 -93 

23-40 

21-75 

1-65 

1-43 

■14 

1 .90 

1  47 

36 

31-70 

26.49 

21 .20 

5-29 

1.16 

2  .04 

.04 

37 

20.71 

15-76 

12.15 

3-61 

1.08 

1.63 

-94 

39 

28.78 

21  .46 

17.80 

3-66 

1-59 

lis 

40 

31-14 

21.35 

15-72 

563 

1.14 

2.03 

1.17 

41 

25-34 

17-94 

14-37 

3-57 

1-15 

1 .40 

1.S6 

.91 

42 

29.09 

20.32 

15-72 

4.60 

150 

2.68 

1-38 

.98 

43 

30.49 

22.94 

22. CI 

-93 

1 .92 

-92 

■94 

.89 

45 

29.07 

21  .22 

19.38 

1.84 

1.67 

1.61 

1. 18 

1-47 

48 

27.72 

19.66 

15-67 

3-99 

1-51 

1-97 

1.41 

1.07 

52 

29.02 

19    08 

17-45 

1-63 

2-30 

2.11 

1 .09 

1-37 

54 

48.22 

30.98 

25-20 

5-78 

2.56 

8.70 

1-36 

55 

17.91 

13-19 

12.07 

1 .12 

1 .06 

1 .09 

-84 

.  22 

56 

30-93 

22.22 

20 .  85 

1-37 

2.. 58 

1.30 

1.36 

1 .12 

57 

52.48 

39.10 

34  07 

5  03 

2.94 

3.22 

2.07 

2.18 

Educational  Administration 


TABLE  91 


The  average  cost  per  pupil  for  two  school  years,  1902-03  and  1903-04.  This 
table  is  derived  from  Tables  89  and  90  which  are  based  on  the  average  number  of 
pupils  in  daily  attendance.    Thirty  cities. 


0 

1 

1 

■■3 

d 

H 

t 

3 

C/3 

0 

1 

1— > 

11 

3 

1 

5 

33  67 

25-33 

24-59 

-74 

2.25 

1 .64 

2-39 

■33 

6 

25-95 

18.52 

17-38 

1. 14 

1-53 

1.72 

1-52 

1.63 

8 

31.76 

22.99 

20.34 

2.6s 

1.87 

1.92 

1.80 

1. 14 

13 

31 -88 

23.28 

18.40 

4.88 

1.98 

I. 71 

2.10 

-79 

14 

28.77 

19.64 

18.23 

1. 41 

2. II 

1.62 

2.48 

1 .69 

15 

25.00 

18.58 

16.39 

2. 19 

1-55 

1 .69 

1-57 

.69 

16 

28.39 

21-35 

19.  20 

2-15 

1.86 

1-63 

1-71 

.98 

20 

23.11 

17-23 

16.64 

-59 

1 .22 

1 .06 

2.12 

.70 

27 

26.10 

18.08 

14.84 

3-25 

2.0I 

1.63 

-91 

•85 

28 

29.84 

20.79 

19.63 

1.16 

2.13 

1 .00 

29 

27.11 

17.80 

16.99 

.81 

2.07 

1-99 

1.50 

1.26 

30 

38 .  01 

26.62 

25.62 

1 .00 

2-39 

1.76 

3-16 

3X 

29.41 

18.85 

18.06 

-79 

I.Q4 

330 

2.30 

32 

31-24 

20.23 

17-29 

2-94 

1.98 

.89 

1-97 

2-34 

34 

33-75 

25.16 

21 .69 

1-47 

3-14 

2-37 

1 .06 

35 

27.  22 

20.88 

19.81 

1.07 

1-51 

1. 14 

1.07 

36 

31.82 

25-45 

20.04 

5-41 

1-13 

1-85 

•38 

37 

19.98 

15.20 

11.77 

3-43 

1.04 

1-39 

.69 

39 

30.39 

22.47 

18.87 

3.60 

1.63 

1-99 

1-25 

40 

32.96 

22.33 

18.81 

3-52 

1 .26 

2.03 

2-45 

1. 19 

41 

24.99 

17.48 

15.18 

2.30 

1. 14 

1 .40 

1.67 

-47 

42 

28.79 

17.09 

15-58 

4-51 

1-49 

2.61 

1-45 

.89 

43 

28.29 

20.42 

19-50 

.92 

1.82 

-93 

1.62 

-77 

45 

28.80 

20.50 

19.  26 

1.24 

1 .60 

1-75 

1-13 

1.72 

48 

25.26 

17-59 

14.48 

3-11 

1-43 

1.62 

1.40 

.70 

52 

27.70 

17-32 

15-63 

1 .69 

2.07 

1. 91 

1 .00 

2.66 

54 

51-47 

33-72 

27.90 

5-82 

2.86 

6.15 

2.32 

1-83 

5| 

19.20 

13-24 

12.34 

.90 

1.07 

1 .11 

-99 

-39 

56 

29-47 

21.05 

18.09 

2.96 

2.46 

113 

1.29 

1-31 

57 

51-86 

38.69 

33  63 

5.06 

2.68 

3-39 

2.04 

2.20 

City  School  Expenditures  289 

Table  87  is  derived  by  finding  the  average  for  two  years.  Thus, 
for  city  number  five,  for  the  first  year,  teaching  and  supervision 
amounted  to  75.9  per  cent  of  the  total,  for  the  same  city  for  the 
second  year  this  item  was  74.9  per  cent  of  the  total;  the  average 
of  the  two,  75.4  per  cent,  gives  the  first  figure  of  Table  87.  In 
like  manner,  janitors'  salaries,  for  the  first  and  second  years 
respectively,  for  city  number  five  amount  to  6.6  and  6.8  per  cent. 
This  gives  us  our  figure,  6.7  per  cent,  for  janitors'  salaries  for  city 
number  five  in  Table  87  (see  Table  87,  first  line,  column  three). 

Table  88  gives  the  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents. 
The  number  used  as  a  divisor  here  is  the  figure  half-way  between 
the  average  number  of  pupils  in  daily  attendance  and  the  average 
daily  enrollment,  or  average  number  belonging,  as  it  is  sometimes 
expressed.  As  stated  elsewhere  in  the  text,  it  is  my  opinion  that 
this  is  a  better  figure  than  either  average  daily  attendance  or 
average  daily  enrollment.  The  only  reason  that  this  basis  is  not 
used  throughout  the  study  is  because  the  figures  for  average  daily 
enrollment  could  not  be  secured  for  a  number  of  the  cities.  In 
the  section  giving  coeflScients  of  correlation  wiU  be  found  a  num- 
ber of  coefficients  which  were  worked  out  on  this  basis  from  this 
table.  This  table  gives  data  for  forty-eight  cities  for  the  school 
year  1902-1903.  The  first  line  reads  as  follows:  City  number 
one  spent  $34.18  per  pupil  for  the  maintenance  and  operation 
of  schools,  of  which  $21.38  per  pupil  was  spent  for  teaching,  $0.99 
per  pupil  for  supervision,  $0.17  per  pupil  for  clerk,  $2.26  per  pupil 
for  janitors'  salaries,  etc. 

Table  89  gives  the  cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents. 
The  average  number  of  pupils  in  daily  attendance  is  used  as  the 
divisor  in  this  case.  The  first  line  reads  as  follows:  City  number 
one  spent  $35.64  per  pupil  for  the  maintenance  and  operation  of 
schools,  of  which  $22.30  per  pupil  was  spent  for  teaching,  $1.03 
per  pupil  for  supervision,  etc.  This  table  gives  data  for  fifty- 
seven  cities  for  the  school  year  1902- 1903. 


290  Educational  Administration 

Table  90  gives  the  same  information  as  Table  89,  calculated  on 
the  same  basis  for  thirty  of  these  cities  for  the  school  year  1903- 
1904.    This  table  is  read  the  same  as  Table  89. 

Table  91  gives  the  average  cost  per  pupil  for  thirty  cities  for 
two  years,  the  school  years  1902-1903  and  1903-1904,  for  the 
principal  items  of  expense.  This  table  is  derived  from  Tables  89 
and  90,  which  are  based  on  the  average  number  of  pupils  in 
daily  attendance.  The  first  line  reads  as  follows:  In  city  number 
five  the  average  for  two  years  of  the  cost  per  pupil  for  mainte- 
nance and  operation  of  schools  was  $33.67  (1902-1903,  $33.27; 
and  1903-1904,  $34.08) ;  for  teaching  and  supervision  the  average 
was  $25.33;  ^^"^  teaching  alone,  $24.59,  etc. 

Throughout  the  tables  a  number  written  across  the  space  be- 
tween the  columns  indicates  that  this  number  applies  to  the  two 
adjoining  columns  taken  together,  and  similarly  an  underscore 
running  across  three  or  more  columns  indicates  that  the  number 
applies  to  these  columns  collectively. 

Variability 

In  the  tables  given  above,  which  compare  the  different  items 
of  the  school  budget  on  a  common  basis,  the  most  striking  thing 
to  be  noticed  is  the  variability  which  exists  among  the  cities.  It 
is  the  purpose  of  this  section  to  consider  somewhat  minutely  the 
problem  of  variability  in  connection  with  the  apportionment  of 
school  moneys  among  the  several  items  of  the  budget.  It  may 
not  be  out  of  place  here  to  call  attention  to  the  ambiguity  if  not 
the  positive  misrepresentation  of  facts  which  results  when,  as  in 
most  cases  where  such  data  have  been  collected,  the  average  alone 
is  given  to  represent  the  facts.  Of  course,  if  one  accepts  the 
average  as  meaning  simply  that  the  sum  of  all  the  cases  is  divided 
by  their  number,  no  harm  is  done;  but  if  one  takes  the  average  as 
indicative  of  the  general  tendency  or  as  a  measure  applicable  to 


City  School  Expenditures  291 

the  majority  of  the  cases,  he  may  be  most  completely  deluded. 
The  average  expenditure  per  pupil  for  cities  Nos.  22,  23,  54,  and 
57  for  the  first  year  (see  Table  89)  is  $31.94.  They  spent  $8.94, 
$12.85,  ^54.72,  and  $51.25  respectively  per  pupil.  The  average 
in  this  case  does  not  correctly  represent  the  group  nor  any  partic- 
ular city  within  the  group.  The  thing  that  interests  us  in  the 
measurement  of  any  trait  in  a  group  is  the  range  or  limits  within 
which  all  of  the  cases  lie,  and  the  grouping  of  the  cases  within 
these  limits. 

If  we  consider  the  facts  found  in  the  tables  already  given  we 
find  that  cities  differ  greatly  not  only  in  the  amount  per  pupil 
which  they  spend  for  the  maintenance  and  operation  of  their 
schools,  but  also  that  even  where  cities  spend  about  the  same 
amount  per  child,  the  distribution  of  this  money  among  the  sev- 
eral items  of  the  budget  is  very  different.  Again,  when  we  con- 
sider simply  the  distribution  of  the  money  that  is  spent,  regardless 
of  the  amount,  as  is  done  in  the  table  which  gives  the  per  cent 
which  each  item  is  of  the  total  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation, 
we  find  that  there  is  the  greatest  variability  in  practice.  One 
city  spends  44%  of  the  cost  for  maintenance  and  operation 
for  teaching  and  supervision,  while  another  spends  82%  for  the 
same  purposes;  the  janitor  receives  from  3%  to  14%  of  the 
money  used  to  run  the  schools;  supervision  costs  one  city  1% 
and  another  city  17%  of  the  whole  amount  spent;  salaries 
for  teaching  vary  from  27%  to  73%  of  the  budget.  It  would 
seem  impossible  that  the  money  is  properly  distributed  in  every 
case  when  we  consider  this  remarkable  variability  in  practice. 

The  undistributed  expenditure  reported  under  the  head  "Mis- 
cellaneous" needs  to  be  considered  in  any  argument  concerning 
the  variability  in  any  item  as  reported  by  several  cities.  It  is 
possible  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  amount  thus  reported 
properly  belongs  to  some  one  of  the  items  for  which  a  report  has 
been  made.    It  may  be  that  the  item  teaching,  supervision,  fuel, 


292  Educational  Administration 

janitors'  salaries,  repairs,  or  some  other  would  be  greatly  increased 
if  the  report  had  properly  distributed  the  money.  It  was  to 
guard  against  any  such  obscurity  that  the  attempt  was  made  in 
this  study  to  secure  a  complete  distribution  of  expenditures  in 
the  cities  from  which  information  was  received,  and,  as  has  been 
noted  above,  this  attempt  was  to  a  remarkable  degree  successful. 
Thirty  cities  out  of  fifty-eight  for  the  first  year  report  nothing 
under  this  head;  sixteen  reported  less  than  2%,  ten  others  less 
than  5%,  and  the  two  remaining  reported  5.14%  and  6.75%, 
respectively,  as  unclassified  expenditures.  For  the  second  year, 
of  thirty  cities  reporting,  eighteen  report  nothing  under  "Miscel- 
laneous"; and  of  the  remaining  twelve,  eight  report  1%  or  less; 
three,  2%;  and  one,  3.76%  under  this  head.  It  is  quite  evident, 
I  believe,  that  the  miscellaneous  item  is  so  small,  even  where  it 
occurs,  that  it  may  not  be  used  as  an  explanation  of  the  varia- 
bility which  occurs  in  all  items  of  expenditure;  and  I  feel  that 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  accurate  distributions  of  the  amounts  re- 
ported under  this  head  would  not  alter  the  conclusions  reached 
in  this  paper. 

It  might  be  argued  that  the  great  variability  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  cities  for  which  data  are  given  are  not  comparable,  that 
one  has  at  its  command  a  much  larger  amount  of  money  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  children  to  be  educated  than  another, 
and  hence  the  variability.  It  is  true  that  rightly  or  wrongly  some 
of  these  cities  are  much  better  provided  with  money  than  others, 
but  that  does  not  seem  to  be  the  cause  of  the  great  variability  in 
the  apportionment  of  the  money  which  they  do  have.  Take, 
for  example,  cities  Nos.  3,  6,  19,  21,  44,  and  56.  From  the  infor- 
mation given  in  Tables  89  and  from  the  data  concerning  attend- 
ance, Table  92  may  be  built  up: 


City  School  Expenditures 


293 


TABLE   92 


No.  of 
City 


19 
21 

44 
56 


Total 
Expense 

$52,708 

50.613 
52,870 
52,178 
48,410 
50,192 


No.  of  Pupils  in 
Daily  Attendance 

1,876 
1,826 

1,831 
2,127 
1,850 
1,794 


Per  cent  spent  for  each  item: 


No.  of 
City 

3 
6 

19 
21 

44 
S6 


Teaching 
68.2 
72.9 
62.9 
69.1 
63.8 
54-6 


Supervision 

4- 

4-2 

3-4 
12.6 

4.6 
16.3 


Janitors 

7- 

5-3 

6 

5 
6 
8 


Fuel 

7 
I 


Cost 
Per  Pupil 

$28.06 
2765 
28.90 

24-50 
26.18 
28.01 


Text-books 
and  Supplies 

6.1 
6.6 
7-5 
1-5 
1 . 2 

3-4 


Repairs 

3 

4 

5 

3 

4-3 

5-3 


The  variation  found  cannot  be  due  in  these  cases  to  a  large 
undistributed  amount,  for  five  of  these  cities  distributed  their 
expenditures  in  the  special  reports  received  from  them  according 
to  the  classification  given,  without  finding  it  necessary  to  report 
anything  under  the  head  "  Miscellaneous,"  and  the  other  (No.  56) 
reports  only  nine-tenths  of  1%  under  this  head. 

In  these  cities  the  amount  of  money  available  and  the  number 
of  pupils  to  be  provided  for  do  not  differ  very  much.  We  might 
expect  that  if  there  were  any  principle  which  controlled  the 
apportionment  of  money,  or  if  the  money  were  apportioned  in 
the  best  way,  the  proportion  of  the  whole  cost  of  maintenance  and 
operation  spent  for  any  of  the  principal  items  would  be  approxi- 
mately the  same  in  these  cities.  By  glancing  at  the  table,  how- 
ever, we  see  here  the  same  marked  variability  which  is  found 
when  the  whole  number  of  cities  is  considered.  Not  that  there  is 
quite  so  great  a  range,  which  would  be  very  unusual  because  of 
the  limited  number  of  cases,  but  that  the  distribution  of  money 
among  the  several  items  seems  not  to  bd  determined  by  any 
common  principle. 


294  Educational  Administration 

It  seems  strange  that  of  two  cities  (No.  6  and  No.  56)  which 
spend  respectively  $50,613  for  1826  pupils  and  $50,192  for  1794 
pupils,  one  should  spend  72.9%  of  its  money  for  teaching  while 
the  other  spends  54.6%  for  the  same  purpose.  Of  course,  if  we 
combine  the  items  of  teaching  and  supervision,  they  do  not  differ 
so  much  (77.1%  and  70.9%),  but  if  this  combination  of  items  is 
made  throughout  for  the  cities  of  this  table,  we  have  a  variation 
in  the  proportion  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision  of  from 
66.3%  to  81.7%  of  the  total  (see  Nos.  19  and  21).  For  the  other 
items  in  these  cities  in  which  the  conditions  seem  to  be  so  much 
alike,  the  table  shows  the  same  variability.  Janitors'  salaries 
vary  from  5.3%  to  8.4%;  fuel,  from  3.8%  to  10%  (in  cities  which 
spend  respectively  $24.50  and  $26.18  per  pupil);  text-books  and 
supplies,  from  1.2%  to  7.5%;  and  repairs  from  3.8%  to  5.7% 
of  the  total. 

It  is,  indeed,  strange  if  44%  of  the  cost  of  maintenance  and 
operation  can  in  one  city  provide  for  proper  teaching  and  super- 
vision, that  in  another  city,  which  spends  more  per  pupil,  it  re- 
quires 82%  of  the  total  for  this  item.  It  would  seem  that  owing 
to  tradition,  to  poor  business  management,  or  to  some  other 
more  invidious  cause,  the  money  spent  is  not  always  spent  to  the 
best  advantage.  It  seems  possible,  also,  that  the  superintendent 
whose  attention  is  called  to  the  wide  variation  in  any  one  item 
of  his  budget,  might  be  led  to  investigate  the  matter,  in  order 
to  determine  whether  there  is  any  good  reason  for  such  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  or  normal  condition  of  affairs. 

A  more  careful  study  of  the  variability  of  the  several  items 
of  the  budget  shows  that  in  many  cases  a  large  expenditure  for 
one  item  is  accompanied  by  a  small  expenditure  for  another. 
Again,  in  other  cases  large  expenditures  in  one  item  seem  to 
be  accompanied  by  large  expenditures  in  others  and  small  expend- 
itures in  some  by  small  expenditures  in  others.  One  has  but  to 
examine  carefully  the  tables  to  have  suggested  the  possibility  of 


City  School  Expenditures  295 

significant  relationships.  In  another  section  I  shall  consider  this 
matter  more  fully  and  measure  a  number  of  these  relationships 
exactly  by  means  of  the  Pearson  Coefficient  of  Correlation. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  we  shall  express  the  variability 
in  order  to  get  as  clear  an  idea  as  is  possible  of  the  lack  of  uni- 
formity and  in  order  to  suggest  the  problems  which  arise  because 
of  this  variability. 

From  the  tables  already  given  it  is  possible  for  us  to  make  out 
frequency  tables  like  those  which  follow.  In  these  tables  the 
first  column  gives  the  amount  of  money  spent,  or  the  per  cent  of 
the  total  which  the  item  is,  and  the  second  column  gives  the 
number  of  instances  where  this  is  true.  They  give  all  the  facts 
concerning  variability;  not  only  the  range  or  limits  within  which 
all  of  the  cases  lie,  but  also  the  exact  placing  of  every  case. 

Explanation  of  Tables 

Table  93  gives  information  for  the  cities  reporting  for  the 
school  year  190  2- 1903. 

Table  A  reads  as  follows:  one  city  spends  27%  for  teaching; 
one,  49%;  one,  52%;  one,  53%;  two,  54%,  etc. 

Table  B  reads  as  follows;  two  cities  spend  1%  for  supervision; 
eleven  spend,  2%;  seven,  3%,  etc. 

Reading  the  first  lines  of  Tables  C  and  D  we  find  that  four 
cities  spent  3%  of  the  budget  for  janitors'  salaries,  and  that  six 
cities  spent  3%  for  fuel. 


296 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  93 
Tables  of  Frequency 
The  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure  for  maintenance  and  operation  which  is 
spent  for  teaching,  supervision,  janitors'  salaries,  and  fuel.    Fifty-eight  cities,  re- 
porting for  the  school  year  1902-03. 


A 

B 

c 

D 

Teachi 

ing 

Supei 

rvision 

Janitors 

'  Salaries 

Fuel 

Per  Cent  Fi 

lequency 

Per  Cent 

Frequency 

Per  Cent 

Frequency 

Per  Cent 

Frequency 

27 

I 

I 

2 

3 

4 

3 

6 

28 

I 

2 

II 

4 

6 

4 

12 

29 

0 

3 

7 

5 

15 

5 

10 

30 

0 

4 

6 

6 

19 

6 

II 

31 

0 

5 

I 

7 

7 

7 

4 

32 

0 

6 

2 

8 

3  . 

8 

3 

52, 

0 

7 

5 

9 

2 

9 

3 

34 

0 

8 

0 

10 

0 

ID 

2 

35 

0 

9 

5 

n 

0 

II 

0 

36 

0 

10 

3 

12 

0 

12 

I 

37 

0 

II 

4 

13 

0 

13 

0 

38 

0 

12 

3 

14 

I 

14 

0 

39 

0 

13 

2 

15 

0 

40 

0 

14 

0 

16 

2 

41 

0 

15 

I 

4i 

0 

16 

4 

43 

0 

17 

2 

44 

0 

45 

0 

46 

0 

47 

0 

48 

0 

49 

I 

SO 

0 

51 

0 

52 

I 

53 

I 

54 

2 

55 

2 

56 

3 

57 

0 

58 

3 

59 

2 

60 

0 

61 

3 

62 

6 

63 

6 

64 

6 

6S 

3 

66 

2 

67 

3 

68 

2 

69 

2 

70 

I 

71 

2 

■ 

73 


City  School  Expenditures 


297 


TABLE  94 
Tables  of  Frequency 
The  per  cent  of  the  total  e.xi>enditurc  for  maintenance  and  operation  which  is 
spent  for  teaching,  supervision,  janitors'  salaries,  and  fuel.    Average  for  two  years, 
thirty  cities  reporting  for  the  school  years  1902-03  and  1903-04. 


Teach 

in« 

Superv 

ision 

Janitors 

Salaries 

Fuel 

Per  Cent  Frequency 

Per  Cent  Frequency 

Per  Cent 

Frequency 

Per  Cent  Frequency 

54 

3 

2 

4 

3 

2 

3 

4 

55 

2 

3 

4 

4 

I 

4 

3 

56 

I 

4 

5 

5 

ID 

5 

8 

57 

2 

5 

0 

6 

II 

6 

9 

S8 

0 

6 

I 

7 

4 

7 

2 

59 

2 

7 

I 

8 

I 

8 

2 

60 

2 

8 

2 

9 

I 

9 

0 

61 

I 

9 

2 

10 

0 

62 

3 

10 

2 

II 

I 

63 

I 

II 

3 

64 

4 

12 

2 

65 

2 

13 

0 

66 

2 

14 

0 

67 

2 

15 

2 

68 

I 

16 

0 

69 

0 

17 

2 

70 

0 

71 

0 

72 

2 

73 

I 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  distributions  given  above 
with  similar  figures  in  Table  95  for  one  hundred  and  three  cities 
considered  in  "  A  Study  of  the  Expenses  of  City  School  Sys- 
tems "  by  Dr.  Harlan  Updegrafif  [191 2],  recently  issued  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

TABLE  95 

Distribution  of  Percentages  of  Total  School  Expenses  Expended  for 

Various  Purposes 
A.     for  superintendent's  office 


Per  Cent  of  Total  School  Expenses 

Number     j 
of  Cities     ! 

i 

Per  Cent  of  Total  School  Expenses       ^(qI^ 

Less  than  0 .  50 

2    1 
14 

25 

17. 

2.50  to  2.99 13 

3.00  to  3.49 9 

3.50103.99 4 

4.00  104.50 3 

0.  >o  to  O.QQ 

1 .  00  to  1 .  49 

I .  ^0  to  1 .  00 

2.00  to  2.49 

298 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  95    {Continued) 

Distribution  of  Percentages  of  Total  School  Expenses  Expended  for 

Various  Purposes 


B.  general  control 


I>ess  than  i .  00, 
1. 00  to  1 .99.  . 
2.00  to  2.99.  . 

3 .  00  to  3 .  99.  . 

4 .  00  to  4 .  99.  . 


5 . 00  to  5 
6 .  GO  to  6 

7  .  GO  to  7 

8.00  to  8 
9 .  00  to  9 


■99 
•99 
•99 
•99 
•99 


c.    salaries  of  elementary  teachers 


Below  42 .  50. 
42.50  to  44 
45.00  to  47 
47.50  to  49 
50.00  to  52 
52.50  to  54 


.99. 
.49. 
.99. 
.49. 
.99. 


9 
9 

16 
20 


55.00  to  57 
57.50  to  59 
60.00  to  62 
62.50  to  64 
65  .00  to  67 
Above  67.50 


.49. 
.99. 
.49. 
.99. 
.49. 


TOTAL  expenses   OF   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS 


Below  65 .  00.  . 
65.00  to  67.49. 
67.50  to  69.99, 
70.00  to  72.49. 
72.50  to  74- 99' 


75.00  to  77-49 
77.50  to  79  99 
80.00  to  82.49 
82.50  to  84.99 
85.00  to  87.49 


24 

22 
10 

4 
4 


SALARIES  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS 


Per  Cent  of  Total  School  Expenses 

Number 
of  Cities 

Per  Cent  of  Total  School  Expenses 

Number 
of  Cities 

Below  6 .  00 

2 

7 
18 
26 

1 2 . 00  to  13 . 99 

20 

6  00  to  7  99 

14. . 00  to  l<, . 00 

17 
9 
3 

8  00  to  9  99 

16.00  to  17.99 

10 .  00  to  II.  99 

18.00 

TOTAL  EXPENSES  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


7.50109.99.  . 

10.00  to  12.49 
12.50  to  14.99 
15.00  to  17.49 


17.50  to  19.99, 
20.00  to  22.49, 
22.50  to  24.99, 
25.00  to  27.50, 


City  School  Expenditures 


299 


TABLE  95   {Continued) 

Distribution  of  Percentages  of  Total  School  Expenses  Expended  for 

Various  Purposes 

G.    salaries  of  teachers  of  all  schools        • 


52.5  to  54 
55otos7 
57  S  to  59 
60.0  to  62 
62.5  to  64 
65.0  to  67 


I 

67- 

4 

70. 

I 

72. 

10 

75- 

14 

77- 

17 

Ab( 

•  5  to  69.9. 
.0  to  72.4. 
.5  to  74.9. 
.0  to  77 .4. 
.  5  to  80 .  o. 


22 
17 


H.    supervision  of  all  schools 


Less  than  i .  00. 


1 .  00  to  I 
2.00  to  2 

3 .  00  to  3 

4 .  00  to  4 
5 . 00  to  5 


.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 


6.00  to  6.99.  . 
7.00  to  7.99.  . 
8.00  to  8.99.  .  , 
9.00  to  9.99.  . 
10.00  and  over, 


I.    text-books,  stationery,  and  school  supplies  of  all  schools 


Less  than  i .  00 

1 .  00  to  1 .  99.  . 

2 .  00  to  2 .  99.  . 
3.00  to  3.99.  . 
4.00  to  4.99.  . 


5.00  to  5.99 
6.00  to  6.99 
7.00  to  7.99 
8.00  to  8.99, 
9.00  to  9.99, 


14 

8 
5 


fuel  for  all  schools 


Less  than  i .  00, 
1 .  00  to  1 .  99.  . 
2.00  to  2.99.  . 
3.00  to  3.99.  . 
4 .  00  to  4 .  99.  . 


5.00  to  5.99, 
6 .  00  to  6 .  99. 
7.00  to  7.99, 
8.00  to  8.99. 


13 
I 

3 
I 


K.    instruction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  all  schools 


Below  84 .  00.  . 
84 .  00  to  85 .  99 
86.00  to  87.99, 
88.00  to  89.99, 
90.00  to  91 .99 


92.00  to  93.09- 
94.00  to  95.99. 
96.00  to  97 .99. 
98.00  to  100.00 


28 
46 

14 
I 


300 


Educational  Adtninistration 


TABLE  96 
Tables  of  Feequenxy 
Cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars,  the  average  daily  attendance  being  used  as 
the  basis  of  calculation.    Fifty-eight  cities,  reporting  for  the  school  year  1902-03. 


Total  Cost 

per  Pupil 

Teachin 
Suiierv 

t;  and 
ision 

Janitors 

Salaries 

Fuel 

Text-books  and 
Supplies 

Dollars  Frequency    Dollars  Frequency 

Dollars  Frequency 

Dollars  Frequency 

Dollars 

Frequency 

8 

I 

6 

I 

•4 

I 

•4 

I 

.2 

2 

9 

0 

7 

I 

■5 

0 

5 

0 

3 

I 

10 

0 

8 

0 

.6 

0 

6 

0 

4 

I 

II 

0 

9 

I 

•7 

0 

7 

I 

5 

0 

12 

I 

10 

0 

.8 

0 

8 

I 

6 

0 

13 

0 

ir 

I 

•9 

2 

9 

I 

7 

I 

14 

0 

12 

0 

1 .0 

3 

0 

2 

8 

0 

15 

I 

13 

I 

I .  I 

4 

I 

3 

9 

2 

16 

0 

14 

2 

1 . 2 

0 

2 

5 

0 

2 

17 

0 

15 

3 

13 

2 

3 

4 

I 

2 

18 

0 

1 6 

3 

1.4 

3 

4 

3 

2 

I 

19 

I 

17 

6 

1-5 

5 

5 

2 

3 

3 

20 

2 

iS 

3 

1.6 

2 

6 

3 

4 

I 

21 

2 

19 

8 

1-7 

3 

7 

3 

5 

2 

22 

2 

20 

3 

I  8 

4 

8 

3 

6 

4 

23 

2 

21 

5 

1.9 

8 

9 

I 

7 

3 

24 

4 

22 

I 

2.0 

3 

2 

0 

5 

8 

I 

25 

I 

23 

5 

2.1 

3 

2 

I 

0 

9 

3 

26 

4 

24 

4 

2,  2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

0 

5 

27 

2 

25 

3 

2-3 

4 

2 

3 

2 

2 

I 

2 

28 

8 

26 

2 

2.4 

2 

2 

4 

0 

2 

2 

0 

29 

4 

27 

0 

2-5 

2 

2 

5 

0 

2 

3 

I 

30 

2 

28 

0 

2.6 

I 

2 

6 

2 

2 

4 

0 

31 

5 

29 

0 

2.7 

0 

2 

7 

I 

2 

5 

I 

32 

3 

30 

I 

2.8 

0 

2 

8 

0 

2 

6 

0 

3.", 

I 

31 

0 

2.9 

I 

2 

9 

I 

2 

7 

0 

34 

2 

32 

I 

30 

I 

3 

0 

0 

2 

8 

0 

35 

3 

33 

0 

3 

r 

0 

2 

9 

0 

36 

I 

34 

0 

3 

2 

0 

3 

0 

I 

37 

I 

35 

0 

3 

3 

I 

3 

I 

0 

38 

0 

36 

I 

3 

4 

I 

3 

2 

0 

39 

0 

37 

0 

3 

5 

0 

3 

3 

0 

40 

0 

38 

I 

3 

6 

I 

3 

4 

0 

41 

I 

3 

7 

0 

3 

5 

I 

42 

0 

3 

8 

0 

3 

6 

0 

43 

I 

3 

9 

0 

3 

7 

0 

44 

0 

4 

0 

0 

3 

8 

0 

45 

0 

4 

I 

0 

3 

9 

0 

46 

0 

4 

2 

0 

4 

0 

0 

47 

0 

4 

3 

0 

4 

I 

0 

48 

0 

4 

4 

0 

4 

2 

0 

49 

0 

4 

5 

0 

4 

3 

0 

50 

0 

4 

6 

0 

4 

4 

0 

51 

I 

4 

7 

I 

4 

S 

0 

52 

0 

4 

6 

I 

53 

0 

54 

I 

City  School  Expenditures 


301 


TABLE  97 
Tables  of  Frequency 

Cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars,  average  for  two  years,  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance being  used  as  the  basis  of  calculation.  Thirty  cities,  reporting  for  the 
school  years  1902-03  and  1903-04. 


Total  Cost 

per 

Teach 

n^  and 

Janitors' 

Salaries 

Fuel 

Text-books  and 

Pupil 

Supe 

rv-ision 

Supplies 

Dollars  Frequency 

Dollars 

Frequency 

Dollars  Frequency 

Dollars  Frequency 

Dollars 

Frequency 

19 

2 

20 

0 

13 

I 

I.O 

2 

•9 

2 

.8 

I 

21 

0 

14 

0 

1. 1 

2 

1 .0 

I 

9 

I 

22 

0 

15 

I 

1.2 

2 

I .  I 

I 

0 

2 

23 

I 

16 

0 

1-3 

0 

1.2 

I 

1 

2 

24 

I 

17 

6 

1-4 

2 

1-3 

I 

2 

0 

25 

3 

18 

4 

1-5 

3 

1.4  • 

2 

3 

0 

26 

I 

19 

I 

1.6 

2 

1-5 

3 

4 

1 

27 

3 

20 

5 

1-7 

0 

1.6 

3 

5 

0 

28 

5 

21 

2 

i.S 

3 

1-7 

2 

6 

6 

29 

3 

22 

3 

1.9 

3 

1.8 

2 

7 

3 

30 

I 

23 

I 

2.0 

3 

1.9 

2 

8 

0 

31 

4 

24 

0 

2.1 

2 

2  0 

I 

9 

3 

32 

I 

25 

3 

2.2 

I 

2.1 

2 

2 

0 

I 

2>2, 

2 

26 

I 

2-3 

I 

2.  2 

0 

2 

I 

,  0 

34 

0 

27 

0 

2.4 

I 

2-3 

3 

2 

2 

0 

35 

0 

28 

0 

2-5 

0 

2.4 

2 

2 

3 

0 

36 

0 

29 

0 

2.6 

I 

2-5 

0 

2 

4 

0 

37 

o 

30 

0 

2.7 

0 

2.6 

0 

2 

5 

0 

38 

I 

31 

0 

2,8 

I 

2.7 

0 

2 

6 

I 

39 

0 

32 

0 

2.9 

0 

2.8 

0 

2 

7 

0 

40 

0 

2,2, 

I 

30 

0 

2.0 

0 

2 

8 

0 

41 

0 

34 

0 

31 

I 

30 

0 

2 

9 

0 

42 

0 

35 

0 

31 

0 

3 

0 

0 

43 

0 

36 

0 

32 

0 

3 

I 

0 

44 

0 

37 

0 

Z-2> 

I 

3 

2 

0 

45 

0 

38 

I 

3 

3 

I 

46 

0 

3 

4 

0 

47 

0 

3 

S 

0 

48 

0 

3 

6 

0 

49 

0 

3 

7 

0 

50 

0 

3 

8 

0 

51 

2 

3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 

9 
0 
I 
2 
3 
4 
S 
6 

7 
8 

9 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

302  Educational  Administration 

TABLE  97  (Continued) 

Tables  of  Frequency 

Cost  per  pupil  expressed  in  dollars,  average  for  two  years,  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance being  used  as  the  basis  of  calculation.  Thirty  cities,  reporting  for  the 
school  years  1902-03  and  1903-04. 

Total  Cost  per         Teaching  and  Janitors'  Salaries  Fuel  Text-books  and 

Pupil  Supervision  Supplies 

Dollars  Frequency  Dollars  Frequency    Dollars  Frequency    Dollars  Frequency   Dollars  Frequency 

S-i  o 

5.2  o 

5-3  o 

S-4  o 

55  o 

5-6  o 

5-7  o 

5-8  o 

S-9  o 

6.0  o 

6.1  I 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  with  the  distribution  given  above, 
the  facts  of  Table  98  taken  from  Dr.  Updegraff's  study  of  city 
school  expenses. 

The  103  cities  of  30,000  population  or  over  whose  expenses 
presented  are  divided  into  four  groups.  Group  I  is  composed 
of  cities  of  300,000  population  or  over  in  19 10;  Group  II,  of  cities 
of  100,000  to  300,000;  Group  III,  of  cities  of  50,000  to  100,000; 
and  Group  IV,  of  cities  of  30,000  to  50,000.  The  number  of 
cities  in  each  of  the  respective  groups  is  as  follows;  13,  20,  42,  28. 
The  total  number  of  cities  in  the  United  States  in  1910  above 
30,000  in  population  was  184,  distributed  among  the  various 
groups  as  follows:  18,  32,  59,  75. 


City  School  Expenditures 


SOS 


TABLE  98 

Distribution  of  A\^rage  Costs,  per  Pupil  Enrolled,  of  Various  Expenses 
involved  in  the  instruction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  elemen- 
TARY Schools 

A.    salaries  of  teachers 


Average  Costs 


Cities  of- 


Group  I 


Group  II    Group  III 


GroupIV|cttL 


$8-$8.99.  . 
$9-$9.99.  . 
$io-$io.99 

$n-$ii 

$I2-$I2 

$I4-$I4 

$i6-$i6 

$i7-$i7 
$i8-$i8 
$i9-$i9 

$20-$20 
$2I-$2I 
$22-$22 
$23-823 
$24-$24 
$25-$25 
$26-$27, 


B.    supervision 


Below  $0 . 

$0 . 20-$0 . 
$0 . 40— $0 . 

$0 .  6o-$o , 
$0 . 8o-$o , 
$i-$i . 19. 

$1 . 20-$I 

$1 .40-SI . 
$1 .6o-$i 
$i.8o-$i 

$2-$2.I9. 
$2 . 20-$2 
$2 . 40-$2 
$2.6o-$2 
$2.8o-$2 
$3-83 ■ 20. 


19 

6 
6 

4 
2 


304 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   98    (Continued) 
Distribution  of  Average  Costs,  per  Pupil  Enrolled,  of  Various  Expenses 
Tnv'Olved  in  the  Instruction,  Operation,  and  Maintenance  of  Elemen- 
tary Schools 

c.    text-books,  stationery,  and  general  supplies 


Below  $0 

20 

$0 

20-$0 

3Q 

$0 

4o-$o 

5Q 

$0 

6o-$o 

7Q 

$0 

8o-$o 

QQ 

$T- 

-$i .  19. 

20-$I 

$1 

39 

$1 

40-$  I 

5Q 

$1 

60-$  I 

7Q 

$1 

8o-$i 

99. 

$2-$2 


D.       SALARIES    OF   JANITORS,    ENGINEERS,    AND    FIREMEN 


. 4o-$o . 
,6o-$o. 
,8o-$o. 

-$1.19. 
, 20-$I . 
.40-$!. 


<l 
-$2.19. 

20-$  2 
40-$  2 

6o-$2 
8o-$2 
-$3  ■  19- 

20-$3 


40. 


Average  Costs 


Cities  of — 


Group  I 


Group  II    Group  III 


Group  IV 


Below  $0 .  20. 
$o.2o-$o.39. 
$o.4o-$o.59. 
$o.6o-$o.79. 
$0 . 8o-$o . 99. 

$i-$i.i9 

$i.2o-$i.39. 
$i.40-$i.S9. 
Si.6o-$i.8o. 


4 

3 

2 

4 

I 

6 

I 

8 

2 

3 

3 

2 

I 

City  School  Expenditures 


305 


TABLE  98   {Continued) 

Distribution  of  Average  Costs,  per  Pupil  Enrolled,  of  Various  Expenses 
Involved  in  the  Instruction,  Operation,  and  Maintenance  of  Elemen- 
tary Schools 

F.    repairs  of  buildings 


, 20-$0, 

, 40-$o , 
,6o-$o. 
,  8o-$o , 
-v$i.iO. 
, 20-$ I . 
,40-Si . 

60-$ I, 

80-$ I. 
-S2.19. 

20-S2. 

40-$2. 

60-S2. 

S0-S2 . 
-$3i9- 

20-$3. 

40-$3- 


total  expense  of  instruction,  operation, 
elementary  schools 


AND    MAINTENANCE    OF 


$II-$II . 
$I2-Sl2. 

$i3-$i3. 
$I4-Si4. 

Si5-$i5 
Si6-$i6, 
$i7-$i7. 
Si8-$i8, 
S1Q-S19. 
S20-S20 

$2I-$2I 
$22-$22 
$23-$23 
$24-824 
$25-$2^ 
$26-526 
$27-527 
$28-828 
$29-829 
$30-830 
$31-531 
$32-832 

S33-S34. 


3o6 


Educational  Administration 

TABLE  98   (Continued) 


Distribution  of  Average  Costs,  per  Pupil  Enrolled,  of  Various  Expenses 
Involved  in  the  Instruction,  Operation,  and  Maintenance  of  Second- 
ary Schools 


SALARIES   OF  TEACHERS 


Average  Costs 


Cities  of- 


Group  I 


Group  II 


Group  III 


Group  IV 


All 
Cities 


$20-$22.49.  .  .  . 
$22.5o-$24.99. 
$25-$27.49.  ... 
$27.so-$29.99. 
$30-$32.49.  ... 
$32.5a-$34.99. 

S35-$37-49 

$37-50-S39-99- 
S40-$42.49.  . . . 
$42. 50-844. 99. 

$45-$47-49 

$47.50-$49.99. 

$50-$52.49 

$52.5o-$54.99. 

$55-$57-49 

$57.5o-$59.99. 
$6o-$62.49.  . . . 
$62.5o-$64.99. 

$65-$67.49 

$67.5o-$7o.oo. 


5 

5 

I 

7 

4 

10 

9 
6 

2 
3 
5 
2 
I 
3 


B.      TEXT-BOOKS,   STATIONERY,   AND   GENERAL   SCHOOL   SUPPLIES 


$6 


■49 

.50-$o.99. 
-$1.49. .  .  , 
.5o-$i.99. 
-$2.49. . . , 
.So-$2.99. 

-$3-49 

.5o-$3.99. 

-$4-49 

50-$4 . 99. 

49 

,50-55.99. 
and  over. 


$5~*S 


1  1  3 

3  2 

2    

2  3 

1  3 

2  I 

4  2 

3    

I     

I     

I  2 

3    


lO 

6 

3 
6 

7 
7 
2 
8 

4 
I 

2 
4 
4 


City  School  Expenditures 


307 


TABLE  98  {Continued) 

Distribution  of  Average  Costs,  per  Pupil  Enrolled,  of  Various  Expenses 
Involved  in  the  Instruction,  Operation,  and  Maintenance  of  Second- 
ary Schools 

c.    salaries  of  janitors,  engineers,  and  firemen 


$I-$I.24. 

$1 .25-$i .49. 


S2-S2.24. 


5o-$i . 74. 
75-$i.99. 


25-$2.49. 
50-$2 . 74. 
75-$2.99. 
$3-24-... 
25-S3-49- 
50-S3 • 74- 
75-53- 99- 
$4 .24 

25-S4-49- 
50-$4.74. 

75-S4-99- 


5-05 • 24- 


.25-$5.49. 
5o-$5 . 74. 

75-S5-99- 
$6  and  over. 


Average  Costs 


Below  $0 .  20. 
So. 20-$o.39. 
$0.40-50.59. 
So.6o-$o.79. 
So.8o-$o.99. 
Si-Si. 19-  • •  • 

$1 . 20-$l .39. 

Si .40-Si .59. 
$i.6o-Si .79. 
$i.8o-$i.99. 
S2-$2.I9.  . . . 
$2.20-$2.39. 

S2.40-S2.59. 
$2.60-82.79. 
$2.8o-S2.99. 
$3  and  over.  . 


Group  I 


Cities  of- 


GroupII     Group  III    Group  IV 


All 
cities 


3o8 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE  98  {Continued) 

Distribution  of  Average  Costs,  per  Pupil  Enrolled,  of  Various  Expenses 
Involved  in  the  Instruction,  Operation,  and  Maintenance  of  Second- 
ary Schools 


repairs  to  buildings 


25-$o. 
So-$o. 
75-$o, 
$1.24. 
25-Si. 
50-Si . 

75-$i . 
$2 . 24. 
25-S2 , 
50-$ 2 . 
75-S2, 
S3 . 24. 
25-$3. 
5o-$3. 
75-S3. 
S4.24. 

25-$4. 
50-S4. 
75~$4' 
and  ov 


,49. 

74- 
.99. 


,49. 

74- 
,99. 
er. 


F.     total  expense  of  instruction,  operation,  and  maintenance 


$25- 
$30- 

«35- 
$40- 

$45- 
$50- 

$55" 
$60- 


$29 
■S34 
■S39 
$44 
$49 
•$54 
$59 
$64 


$70-$79 


3-$  1 00. 


2 

2 

2 

I 

I 

2 

2 

3 

7 
I 

I 

6 

8 

7 

3 

12 

5 

2 

It 

4 

7 

2 

I 

6 

2 

5 

I 

2 

5 
2 

I 

3 

2 

2 

Dr.  Updegraff  states  the  following  conclusions  based  on  com- 
parisons of  the  average  costs  of  the  same  kinds  of  expenses  in  the 
different  groups  of  cities: 

I.  The  larger  the  city  the  greater  the  average  cost  per  pupil 
enrolled  of — 


City  School  Expenditures  309 

(a)  Total  cost  of  instruction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of 
elementary   schools, 

(6)  Salaries  of  elementary-school  teachers. 

(c)  Janitors  of  elementary  schools. 

(d)  Repairs  of  elementary  schools. 

(e)  Total  cost  of  instruction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of 
secondary  schools. 

(/)  Salaries  of  secondarj'-school  teachers, 
(g)  Janitors  of  secondary  schools. 
(h)  Repairs  of  secondary  schools. 

2.  There  is  no  apparent  tendency  in  the  variation  of  the  aver- 
age cost  of — 

(a)  Text-books,  stationery,  and  general  school  supplies  of 
elementary  schools, 

(b)  Fuel  of  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

Table  94  gives  frequency  tables  based  upon  the  average  of  the 
first  and  second  years'  figures  from  thirty  cities.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  range  is  somewhat  less,  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  there  are  fewer  cases. 

The  tables  for  the  first  year's  figures  alone  are,  of  course,  less 
reliable  than  those  which  give  the  average  for  two  years,  so  far 
as  any  one  city  is  concerned.  However,  the  greater  variability 
found  in  these  figures  for  the  first  year  which  does  not  appear 
where  the  average  for  the  two  years  is  taken  is  due  largely  to  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  cities  which  give  the  extreme  variation  have 
not  yet  reported  for  two  years.  In  Table  93  for  example,  the 
cities  reporting  27%,  28%,  49%,  and  52%,  respectively,  for 
teaching,  are  cities  Nos.  47,  23,  11,  and  52,  none  of  which  reported 
for  the  second  year.  The  variability  for  the  first  year's  figures 
is,  simply  because  there  are  more  cases,  more  nearly  a  correct 
representation  of  the  facts  of  variability,  we  believe,  than  the 
average  of  the  two  years  where  many  of  the  extreme  cases  are 
not  found.    It  is  remarkable  that  so  small  a  proportion  as  27% 


3IO  Educational  Administration 

should  be  devoted  to  teaching  in  one  case,  when  other  cities  use 
73%  of  their  funds  for  this  purpose — that  some  cities  should 
give  2.7  times  as  great  a  proportion  for  teaching  as  others. 

The  variation  in  the  proportion  which  is  spent  for  supervision 
is  not  less  remarkable.  Here  the  cities  seem  to  divide  themselves 
into  groups — those  which  spend  a  comparatively  large  propor- 
tion of  their  money  for  supervision,  and  those  in  which  this  item 
is  allowed  a  smaller  share  of  the  money.  One  feels  that  super- 
vision which  costs  1 7%  of  the  money  available  for  schools  should 
produce  remarkable  results  in  the  way  of  saving  time  and  energy 
for  teachers  and  pupils,  if  it  is  to  be  justified  when  compared  with 
other  cities  in  which  2%  of  the  budget  seems  to  secure  satisfactory 
supervision. 

The  range  for  janitors'  salaries  may  indicate  a  real  difference 
in  the  care  of  school  buildings,  or,  in  rare  instances,  perhaps 
some  connection  between  ward  politics  and  the  janitor's  position. 
Leaving  out  the  most  extreme  case,  it  seems  rather  remarkable 
that  in  some  instances  one  dollar  out  of  every  eleven  available 
for  the  maintenance  and  operation  of  the  schools  should  be  spent 
for  the  care  of  buildings. 

That  fuel  should  be  allowed  in  some  cities  three  times  as  great 
a  proportion  of  the  money  spent  as  in  others  would  not  seem 
strange  if  our  cities  were  found  in  sections  of  the  country  with 
very  different  climatic  conditions ;  but  that  four  or  even  five  times 
as  much  should  be  necessary  under  conditions  which  are  not 
greatly  different  seems  preposterous. 

Table  94,  which  is  based  on  the  average  for  two  years,  gives  the 
most  accurate  information  we  have  for  the  thirty  cities  which 
reported  two  years.  The  limits  within  which  the  cases  He  are,  as 
has  already  been  noted,  somewhat  smaller  than  in  the  case  of  the 
first  year's  figures  considered  alone.  This  is  due  largely  to  the 
fact  that  we  have  a  smaller  number  of  cases.  The  variability  is, 
nevertheless,  sufficientily  striking  with  a  range  of  from  54%  to 


City  School  Expenditures  311 

73%  for  teaching,  from  2%  to  17%  for  supervision,  from  3%  to 
9%  for  janitors'  salaries,  and  from  3%  to  11%  for  fuel. 

Table  95  gives  the  variability  for  the  cost  per  pupil  for  some 
of  the  principal  items  of  the  budget.  The  cost  per  pupil  as  given 
here  is  based  on  the  average  daily  attendance. 

In  the  tables  given  above,  we  have  an  expression  of  the  varia- 
bility in  terms  of  the  amount  of  money  spent.  We  sometimes 
think  of  the  cities  in  the  region  covered  by  this  study  as  spending 
a  very  large  amount  for  public  education.  The  average  inhabi- 
tant, if  not  the  school  officers  themselves,  of  any  of  these  cities 
will  probably  say  that  their  school  system  is  quite  as  good  as  any 
other,  or  at  least  as  good  as  the  average.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we 
find  a  great  variabiUty  in  the  total  amount  per  pupil  spent,  as  well 
as  in  the  amount  spent  for  various  items.  No  one  beheves  that 
the  city  which  spends  $54.00  per  pupil  furnishes  an  education  six 
and  three  quarters  times  as  good  as  the  city  which  spends  only 
$8.00  per  pupil.  On  the  other  hand,  it  hardly  seems  possible  that 
the  opportunity  for  education  in  the  eight-dollar  city  can  be  equal 
to  that  found  in  the  fifty-four-dollar  city.  Teaching  and  super- 
vision which  cost  $6.00  per  child  are  hardly  likely  to  be  as  good 
as  those  which  cost  three,  four,  five,  or  even  six  times  as  much. 
No  argument  based  upon  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  living  could 
account  for  so  great  a  difference  in  the  cost  of  instruction.  Either 
the  teachers  receive  a  very  much  smaller  salary  in  the  cities 
which  pay  a  relatively  small  amount  per  pupil,  or  they  have  much 
larger  classes  to  instruct,  or  both  conditions  taken  together 
explain  the  variabiUty. 

One  may  infer  that  the  number  of  children  determines  the 
number  of  seatings  which  must  be  furnished,  if  not  the  number 
and  size  of  buildings;  and  yet  janitors'  salaries  may  cost  from 
40  cents  to  $3.00  per  pupil,  and  fuel  from  40  cents  to  $4.70  per 
pupil. 

If  we  neglect  the  cases  where  a  very  little  is  spent  for  text-books 


312  Editcational  Administration 

and  supplies — the  cases  where  they  are  not  furnished  free  to 
pupils — we  still  find  that  some  cities  spend  three  or  four  times 
as  much  per  pupil  as  others  for  these  articles.  It  seems  rather 
remarkable  that  the  real  value  of  books  and  supplies  furnished 
to  pupils  should  vary  so  much;  and  even  if  this  were  the  case,  one 
might  question  whether  the  money  is  spent  to  best  advantage 
in  those  cities  which  spend  the  larger  amounts.  Might  not  a 
part  of  this  money  have  been  spent  to  greater  advantage  in  some 
other  way? 

The  limits  within  which  all  of  the  cases  lie  are  significant,  but 
are  not  so  true  a  measure  of  the  variability  of  the  group  as  are 
the  limits  within  which  the  middle  50%  of  the  cases  He.  A  single 
exceptional  case  may  double  the  range  within  which  all  of  the 
cases  lie,  but  manifestly  this  does  not  double  the  variability  of 
the  group.  This  figure,  which  we  call  2  Q,  is  found  by  counting 
in  from  both  the  upper  and  lower  limits  until  25%  of  the  cases 
have  been  covered,  and  then  finding  the  range  within  which  the 
remaining  50%  of  the  cases  lie.  For  instance,  in  Table  92,  in 
which  there  are  58  cases,  we  count  off  from  the  lower  Umit  fifteen 
cases  (25%  =  i4>^),  which  brings  us  to  the  group  of  three  cities 
which  spend  58%  of  their  money  for  teaching;  in  like  manner, 
counting  from  the  other  extreme,  25%  of  the  cases  are  found  to 
spend  more  than  67%  of  their  money  for  teaching.  The  limits 
within  which  the  middle  50%  of  the  cases  He  are,  then,  58  and  67, 
and  2  Q  equals  (67 — 58  =  9)  nine.  After  we  have  found  the  2  Q, 
the  relation  which  it  bears  to  the  median  gives  us  a  stiU  better 
idea  of  the  variability  of  the  group.  If  it  is  desired  to  compare 
the  variabiHty  of  the  group  in  several  traits,  the  relation  of  the 
2  Q  to  the  square  root  of  the  median  is  more  exact  than  either  of 
the  figures  before  suggested  because  this  measure  will  be  less 
affected  by  errors  due  to  inaccuracy  of  measurements,  or  to  the 
small  number  of  measurements  made.  In  Table  99  below,  2  Q, 
the  per  cent  which  2  Q  is  of  the  median,  and  the  per  cent  which 


City  School  Expenditures 


3^3 


2  Q  is  of  the  square  root  of  the  median  are  given, 
derived  from  the.  frequency  tables  already  given. 


This  table  is 


TABLE  99 
Measures  of  Variability  for  City  School  Expenditures 


Per  cent  of  total  spent  for  each  item.    First 
year's  figures. 

Teaching 

Supervision 

Janitors'  Salaries 

Fuel 

Per  cent  of  total  spent  for  each  item.    Average 
of  two  years'  figures. 

Teaching 

Supervision 

Janitors'  Salaries 

Fuel 

Cost  per  pupil.  First  year's  figures. 

Total  cost  per  pupil 

Teaching  and  Supervision 

Janitors'  Salaries 

Fuel 

Text-books  and  Supplies 


2Q 


Per  cent 
Per  cent.       which  2  Q  is 
which  2  O  is  of  the  Square 
of  the  Median    Root  of  the 
Median 


14 

"3 

105 

290 

16 

40 

50 

123 

14 

112 

100 

283 

65 

166 

16 

42 

25 

132 

33 

136 

37 

50 

50 

61 

53 

69 

By  calculating  the  deviations  from  the  medians  it  will  be  seen 
that  certain  variations  in  one  item  are  accompanied  by  like  vari- 
ations in  some  other  item,  or  that  a  plus  deviation  in  one  item 
is  accompanied  by  a  negative  deviation  for  the  other,  or  vice  versa. 
Take,  for  example,  the  items  of  janitors'  salaries  and  salaries  for 
teaching  and  supervision.  In  these  items  one  is  struck  by  the 
fact  that  a  plus  deviation  in  salaries  paid  janitors  is  often  accom- 
panied by  a  negative  deviation  for  teaching  and  supervision,  and 
vice  versa.    Picking  out  the  cases,  we  have  Table  loo. 


314 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   loo 

The  Relation  Between  the  Amount  Spent  for  Janitors'  Salaries  and  the 
Amount  Spent  for  Salaries  of  Teachers  and  Supervisors   . 


No.  of  City 

Janitors'  Salaries 

Salaries  for  Teaching 
and  Supervision 

I 

+4- 

—S-S 

7 

+3 

3 

—3-4 

9 

+  1 

3 

— i-S 

II 

+3 

—9.9 

14 

+ 

7 

-3-6 

17 

+ 

8 

—   -5 

19 

+ 

6 

—5-9 

23 

+8 

7 

—13- 

27 

+  1 

I 

—4-5 

28 

+  1 

— 2. 

29 

+ 

8 

—6.6 

30 

+ 

I 

—   .1 

31 

+ 

4 

—II. 8 

34 

+  1 

9 

—2.4 

43 

+  1 

5 

—2.4 

47 

+  2 

3 

— 26.9 

52 

+ 

8 

— 12.2 

56 

+  2 

2 

—  .2 

6 

— 

9 

+5-9 

8 

■ — 

I 

+    -S 

10 

— 

3 

+4.3 

20 

— I 

+  2.4 

21 

— 

3 

+  10. 5 

22 

— 2 

+3-9 

25 

— I 

3 

+6.7 

26 

— 

3 

+  1.8 

33 

— 

I 

+  11. 1 

36 

— 2 

7 

+  5-2 

37 

— 

8 

+4-9 

38 

— 2 

4 

+  2.8 

39 

■ — I 

+  2.2 

46 

— I 

6 

+  1.4 

49 

— 2 

2 

+4-8 

SI 

— 

7 

+8.4 

57 

— I 

.S 

+3-4 

58 

— 

8 

+  1.6 

The  gross  deviations  from  the  median  are  significant,  especially 
when  deviations  for  different  items  are  compared  with  each  other 
as  indicated  above,  but  the  range  of  variability  is  better  indicated, 
I  believe,  by  giving  the  per  cent  of  the  median  or  other  single 


City  School  Expenditures  315 

figure  indicating  a  central  tendency.  For  example,  the  median 
for  janitors'  salaries  (first  year's  figures,  per  cent  basis)  is  6.2%, 
and  for  salaries  for  teaching  and  supervision  it  is  71.2%.  Now, 
a  deviation  of  .6%  in  the  case  of  janitors'  salaries  seems  insignif- 
icant when  compared  with  a  deviation  of  7.1%  for  teaching  and 
supervision — the  one  is  almost  twelve  times  the  other;  but  when 
we  remember  that  each  one  represents  a  deviation  equivalent  to 
about  10%  of  the  median,  we  are  nearer  recognizing  their  real 
significance,  I  believe,  than  when  we  consider  them  merely  in 
gross.  Even  this  method  of  comparison  is,  however,  misleading, 
since  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  the  items  "  teaching  and  super- 
vision" or  "teaching"  to  vary  as  much  as  icx)%  above  or  below 
the  median  when  the  per  cent  of  the  total  is  taken  as  the  basis 
of  comparison,  because  the  median  for  teaching  and  supervision 
amounts  to  70.7%  and  for  teaching  to  63.1%  of  the  total.  On 
the  cost  per  pupil  basis,  while  it  is  not  impossible  to  have  a  varia- 
tion equal  to  100%  of  the  median,  or  greater,  for  these  larger 
items,  yet,  even  if  such  variations  occur,  they  are  not  comparable 
to  variations  which  give  the  same  per  cent  of  the  median  where 
this  item  represents  a  very  much  smaller  part  of  the  total  expendi- 
ture. Even  after  these  qualifications  (which  show  us  that  we 
must  be  on  our  guard  in  comparing  variabilities  for  different  items) 
have  been  made,  I  am  still  of  the  opinion  that  such  calculations 
are  very  helpful  in  giving  us  a  correct  idea  of  the  variability  of  all 
items,  as  well  as  permitting  us  to  compare  the  variability  of  items 
whose  medians  represent  about  the  same  proportion  of  the  total, 
or  nearly  the  same  cost  per  pupil. 

In  Table  loi  the  items  which  apparently  show  the  least  varia- 
bility are  "total,"  "teaching  and  supervision,"  and  "teaching." 
As  noted  above,  any  deviation  above  the  median  is  possible;  i.  e. 
the  deviation  above  the  median  may  be  100%  or  more  of  the 
median.  It  is  striking  to  note  that  the  deviations  expressed  as 
per  cents  of  the  median  for  the  total  amount  spent  range  from 


3i6 


Educational  Administration 


I  I         

I 1 I  '        I 1        1 ! 


53 


55 


57 

r- 
I 


65 


73 


1  1 

1 

1 

1 , 

"  1 

1 

— 

1 
1 
1 

^ 

n 


58       60 


64 


70 


78        80 


Fig.  24.  Teaching 

Fig.  25.  Supervision 

Fig.  26.  Teaching  and  supervision 

Fig.  27.  Janitors'  salaries 


City  School  Expenditures 


317 


r- 


tzzCZZr 


7  10 

Fig.  28.  Text-books  and  supplies 
Fig.  29.  Fuel 
Fig.  30.  Repairs 


3i8 


Educational  Administration 


r- 
I 
1 


r=z^ 


1 — r 


13       15 


11 


33 


39 


1 

! -! 

1 

_l 

!  1 

~i      r  ~T 

1 

29 


33 


r 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I        1 

1        1 

1            ,     1 

1        1        L 

1 

0.50 


1.5 


5.5 


1.25 


1.75 


-^cz. 


I — v 


0.9     I.I       1.3 


1.7 


2.5 


Fig.  31.  Teaching  and  supervision 

Fig.  32.  Teaching 

Fig.  33.  Supervision 

Fig.  34.  Janitors'  salaries 

Fig.  35.  Text-books  and  supplies 


S3 


City  School  Expenditures 


319 


1         1 

r~"i___ 

1 

1 

1 

1     1 

1 

1 

Ll_     . 

1 

Mi                           11! 

1         1 

0.9    Vi      1.3 

1.7                                            Zl 

3.3 

r-^ 

( — 

1 

.1 

!l 

~ir    1 

r   1     1 

1 1 

0.50  0.75       1. 

2.                                  3. 
Fig.  36.  Fuel 

4. 

Fig 

•37. 

Repairs 

—  30.6%  to  +  80.2%;  while  for  teaching  and  supervision  the 
range  is  from  —  35- 1%  to+88.8%.  Apparently  the  amount  paid 
per  child  for  teaching  and  supervision  is  even  more  variable  than 
the  total  amount  of  money  spent  per  child.  Possibly  this  is 
what  we  might  have  expected  when  we  remember  that  teachers  of 
some  sort  can  be  had  for  almost  any  salary,  while  some  of  the 
other  commodities  or  utilities  which  must  be  had  to  run  the  school 
have  a  much  more  definite  market  value.  The  great  range  for 
supervision  from  —  73-7%  to  4-  166%  is  at  least  partially  to  be 
accounted  for,  I  believe,  by  the  fact  that  no  very  clear  distinction 
exists  between  teachers  and  supervisors  or  principals  in  some 
systems.  Those  who  should  have  been  reported  as  teachers  are, 
doubtless,  in  some  instances  reported  as  supervisors,  and  viceversa. 

The  items  ''janitors'  salaries,"  "text-books  and  supplies," 
and  "fuel"  furnish  the  best  opportunity  for  comparison  of  varia- 
bility. The  medians  for  these  items  are  respectively  $1.90,  $1.60, 
and  $1.70.    The  range  of  deviations  for  janitors'  salaries  is  from 

—  42.8%  to-f53.5%  of  the  median;  for  text-books  and  supplies, 
from — 42.7%  to+  274%;  and  for  fuel,  from — 40.9%  to +  93.6%. 


320  Educational  Administration 

That  the  smallest  proportional  plus  variation  should  be  found  in 
the  item  of  janitors'  salaries,  and  the  largest  for  the  item  of  text- 
books and  supplies  seems  to  me  to  indicate  that,  in  some  cities 
at  least,  more  money  means  more  of  those  things  which  make 
possible  efficient  work  in  the  schools. 

The  deviations  for  the  item  of  repairs  show  a  range  of  from 

—  74-8%  to  +  196.6%  of  the  median.  There  would  probably  be 
less  variability  in  this  item  if  we  had  the  figures  for  a  period  of 
five  or  ten  years,  instead  of  only  two  years'  figures. 

Table  102,  which  gives  the  deviations  from  the  medians  on  the 
per  cent  basis  (the  average  for  two  years)  reduced  to  per  cent 
of  the  median,  offers  another  interesting  view  of  the  variability. 
When  we  ask  how  a  city  spends  its  money  regardless  of  the 
amount  of  money  which  it  has  to  spend,  we  are  dealing  with  the 
problem  which  every  administrator  of  schools  must  face.  From 
a  median  of  70.7%  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision,  we  find  that 
the  variations  range  from  —  ii-7%  to +14.3%  of  that  propor- 
tion, while  the  deviations  for  teaching  alone  amount  to  from 

—  14.4%  to  +  16.1%.  In  these,  and  in  the  other  items  given  in 
this  table,  we  find  a  smaller  range  than  is  found  for  the  same 
items  on  the  cost  per  pupil  basis.  This  means,  of  course,  that 
amount  of  money  per  pupil  available  for  maintenance  and  oper- 
ation of  schools  varies  much  more  than  does  the  proportional 
distribution  of  that  money. 

On  the  basis  used  in  this  table,  as  well  as  on  the  cost  per  pupil 
basis,  we  find  that  the  range  above  the  median  is  less  for  janitors' 
salaries  than  for  fuel  or  text-books  and  supplies — that  of  the 
three,  text-books  and  supplies  show  the  greatest  range.  The 
range  for  janitors'  salaries  is  from — 41%  to+54.1%  of  the  median; 
for  fuel,  from  — 40.7%  to  +  89.8%;  for  text-books  and  supplies, 
from  —  94-8%  to  +  131.6%.  In  a  later  section,  where  the  rela- 
tionship of  these  items  to  the  total  is  worked  out  exactly,  the 
item  of  text-books  and  supplies  is  shown  to  be  more  closely  corre- 


City  School  Expenditures 


321 


TABLE   loi 

Deviations  from  the  medians;  average  cost  per  pupil  for  two  years  reduced  to  per 
cents  of  the  medians.    The  figures  refer  to  per  cents  and  tenths  of  per  cents. 


>. 

.2 

•a 

C.2 

§ 

it  a 

% 

II 

:3 

0 

-boo 
ppli< 

e 

B 

■rt 

u  3 

'^ 

K 

c 

Kc^ 

u 

a 

3 

0 

V^' 

(U 

3 

^ 

u'" 

3 

:z; 

H 

H 

H 

en 

1— > 

H 

u. 

fii 

Medians 

28.8 

20.5 

.8.3 

2.  2 

1.9 

1.6 

1-7 

I.I 

5 

20.5 

239 

34-4 

— 64s 

21.4 

0 

40.9 

-65-5 

6 

—9-7 

—9-3 

—4.9 

46.  I 

—16. I 

6.1 

—  II. 7 

56.1 

8 

10.4 

12.  2 

10.9 

23.1 

0 

18.3 

5-8 

9-4 

13 

I0.8 

13-7 

.6 

124.0 

5-4 

6.1 

234 

—28.1 

14 

0 

—3-9 

—  .6 

—36-9 

10.  7 

0 

46.8 

56.1 

15 

—"•5 

— 9-3 

— 10.4 

0 

—16. 1 

0 

-5-8 

—37-4 

16 

—1-4 

4-4 

4-9 

0 

0 

° 

0 

—9-4 

20 

—19.8 

-15-6 

—9-3 

—73-7 

—32.1 

—36.6 

234 

—37-4 

27 

—9-4 

—II. 7 

—19. 1 

507 

5-4 

0 

—46.8 

-18.7 

28 

ZS 

i-S 

71 

— 46. 1 

16.1 

—36.6 

29 

—5-9 

—13.2 

—71 

—64-5 

10.7 

18.3 

—II. 7 

18.7 

30 

32.0 

30.2 

39.9 

—55-3 

26.7 

0 

196.6 

31 

2.1 

7.8 

— I .  I 

—64-5 

5-4 

93-6 

112. 2 

32 

8.3 

— 1 .0 

—5-5 

369 

5-4 

—42.7 

17.6 

121 .6 

34 

17.0 

22.9 

18.6 

—32.3 

695 

40.9 

0 

35 

-5-6 

1.9 

8.2 

—50-7 

—16. 1 

-5-8 

0 

36 

10.4 

24.4 

9-3 

148.0 

—37-4 

5.8 

-65.5 

37 

—30.6 

—25-9 

—35-5 

59-9 

-42.8 

-17.6 

—37-4 

39 

5-6 

9.8 

2,-2> 

64-5 

—10.7 

17.6 

18.7 

40 

14.6 

9-3 

2-7 

59-9 

—32.1 

24.4 

46.8 

9  4 

41 

—13.2 

— 14.6 

—17.0 

4.6 

—37-4 

— 12.2 

0 

-56.1 

42 

0 

—16.6 

—14.8 

106.0 

—21.4 

61 .0 

—II -7 

-18.7 

43 

—1-7 

0 

6.6 

—55-3 

0 

—42.7 

0 

—28.1 

45 

0 

0 

5-5 

—41-5 

—16. 1 

6.1 

—29.2 

56.1 

48 

— 12.2 

—14. 1 

—20.8 

41-5 

—21.4 

0 

—II. 7 

—37-4 

52 

-3-8 

—  15-2 

—14.8 

23.1 

10.7 

18.3 

— 351 

149.0 

54 

78.8 

64.9 

52-5 

166.0 

53-5 

274 -3 

35   I 

—74-8 

55 

— 26.4 

—35  I 

—33-3 

—59-9 

-42.8 

— 30-5 

—40.9 

-65  5 

56 

2-4 

2.9 

1 .1 

369 

32.1 

—30  5 

-17.6 

.     18.7 

57 

80.2 

88.8 

83.6 

1340 

42.  S 

104.0 

17.6 

102.8 

322 


Ediicational  Administration 


TABLE   I02 

Deviations  from  the  medians;  average  for  two  years  of  per  cent  of  total  which 
each  item  is  reduced  to  per  cents  of  the  medians.  The  figures  refer  to  per  cents  and 
tenths  of  per  cents. 


>. 

T) 

S 

-0 

c 

c  e 

rt.O 

to 

c 
0 

j3 

"o 

c  > 

15  S 

IS 

u 

1 

§1 

■3 

3 

'3 

1 

3 

l-t 

0 

•?  3 

►ii 

(A 

3 

H 

m 

■5 

Z 

1— • 

H 

Medians 

70.7 

63.1 

S.o 

6.1 

5  -7 

5-9 

3-5 

5 

6.6 

16. 1 

—72.5 

9.8 

—8.8 

20.3 

—74-3 

6 

•4 

5-7 

— 450 

—1.6 

15-8 

1-7 

85.8 

8 

2-5 

1.4 

50 

—  1.6 

5-3 

—3-4 

2.9 

13 

30 

—5-9 

92.5 

i-3, 

—7.0 

II. 8 

—28.6 

H 

—3-2 

•5 

-38.8 

21.4 

—1.8 

37-3 

68.6 

15 

5-7 

4-3 

II  .2 

3-3 

17.6 

51 

— 20.1 

i6 

6.8 

7.6 

—50 

8.2 

—  1.8 

3-4 

0 

20 

5-5 

14.4 

-67.7 

—13.2 

—22.8 

45-8 

—14-3 

27 

—3-7 

—II. 4 

57-7 

24.6 

22.8 

—40.7 

2.9 

28 

—1.4 

4-3 

—51.2 

16.4 

—40.4 

29 

—71 

—  ■5 

-62.5 

26.3 

21. 1 

—51 

— 40.1 

30 

—  •3 

7-4 

-67.7 

3-3 

— 22.0 

137.2 

31 

—9-5 

—30 

—66.2 

8.2 

89.8 

122.7 

32 

-6.5 

—13-9 

26.2 

4-9 

—50.9 

6.8 

102.8 

34 

—30 

1-7 

— 450 

54-1 

II. 9 

—5-7 

35 

8.5 

15-5 

—52.5 

—6.6 

-94.8 

0 

8.6 

36 

14-3 

—  .8 

115. 0 

— 41 .0 

—87.8 

—1.7 

-65.7 

37 

7.8 

—6.2 

115.0 

-14.8 

17.0 

—  2.9 

39 

4.5 

-1.6 

48.7 

-II. 5 

10.2 

17.2 

40 

—3-7 

—9-7 

38.8 

—37-7 

7.0 

23-7 

2.9 

41 

—  •9 

—35 

13-7 

-26.2 

—1.8 

13.6 

—48.6 

42 

—  1-3 

—14-3 

96.2 

—14.8 

59.7 

-13-6 

—  II-5 

43 

1.8 

8.9 

-58.7 

4-9 

— 42.2 

0 

—  22.9 

45 

•  7 

6.0 

— 46.2 

—9.9 

7.0 

—  33-9 

68.6 

48 

—31 

—9.0 

51-2 

—6.6 

10.6 

—5-1 

—22.9 

52 

—II. 7 

— 10.9 

—23-7 

4-9 

28.1 

— 390 

179  8 

54 

—7-5 

—14.4 

41.2 

— II-5 

132.6 

—  18.8 

0 

55 

— 2.1 

2.1 

— 4c.  0 

—8.2 

1.8 

-13.6 

—42.9 

56 

•7 

—3-5 

28.7 

36.1 

—33-3 

—25-4 

25 -7 

57 

5-4 

2-7 

21.2 

—  16.4 

—33-9 

20.x 

City  School  Expenditures  323 

lated  with  the  total  amount  spent  than  are  either  of  the  other 
items. 

As  a  conclusion  to  the  discussion  of  variability,  it  may  not  be 
out  of  place  to  suggest  certain  limits  within  which,  in  my  judg- 
ment, the  cost  per  pupil  or  per  cent  of  total  amount  spent  for 
each  item  should  lie.  Allowing  for  some  difference  in  the  cost 
of  living,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  any 
city  spending  less  than  $30  per  pupil  for  the  maintenance  and 
operation  of  schools,  should  investigate  in  order  to  find  out 
whether  the  schools  are  getting  their  just  proportion  of  the  money 
spent  by  the  city.  This  amount  seems  small  when  compared 
with  the  rates  of  tuition  charged  to  day  pupils  in  our  best  private 
schools,  where  the  tuition  even  in  the  lower  grades  is  commonly 
$100  to  $200  per  year.  It  is  difficult  to  place  the  upper  limit  for 
the  total  cost  per  pupil,  except  by  saying  that  the  expenditure 
should  be  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  public  schools 
shall  be  able  to  do  as  efficient  work  as  our  best  private  schools. 
When  we  compare  the  meager  provision  which  was  made  for 
public  education  fifty  years  ago  with  an  expenditure  of  $54  per 
pupil  reported  by  one  of  the  cities  with  which  this  study  deals,  we 
are  inclined  to  feel  hopeful  for  the  future.  If  the  superintendent 
of  schools,  or  other  school  oJ65cer,  has  seen  to  it  that  as  much 
money  as  possible  is  provided  for  the  public  schools,  his  next 
problem  is  to  apportion  the  money  secured  among  the  several 
items  of  the  budget  to  the  best  possible  advantage.  From  the 
data  given  above,  it  is  my  judgment  that  an  ideal  budget  would 
give  to  each  of  the  principal  items  not  less  than  the  first  propor- 
tion mentioned  in  the  table  below,  nor  more  than  that  indicated 
by  the  last  figure,  except  that  cities  spending  an  unusually  large 
amount  per  pupil  should,  I  believe,  spend  a  relatively  larger 
proportion  for  teaching  and  supervision,  and  for  text-books  and 
supplies;  while  the  proportion  spent  for  fuel,  repairs,  and  janitors' 
salaries  should  increase  much  more  slowly. 


324  Educational  Administration 

%  of  Total     %  of  Totals 

Teaching  and  Supervision  from  70%  to  75% 

Supervision  alone            "       7%  "  10% 

Teaching  alone                "    60%  "  68% 

Janitors'  Salaries                     "       5%  "       7% 

Text-books  and  Supplies       "      4%  "  6% 

Fuel                                         "      5%  "  7% 

Repairs                                   "      3%  "  5% 

Teaching  and  supervision  are  the  most  important  factors  in 
an  efifective  school  system  and  should,  in  my  opinion,  receive  a 
greater  rather  than  a  smaller  proportion  than  that  usually  given. 
The  limits  given  for  supervision  are  high  rather  than  low,  I  think. 
There  is  a  tendency  to-day,  I  believe,  to  differentiate  the  work 
of  the  supervisor  of  instruction  from  that  of  the  class  teacher  on 
the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the  mere  routine  work  of 
the  assistant  who  keeps  the  office  records.  This  means  that  a 
competent  supervising  principal  can  do  the  work  of  supervision 
formerly  done  by  five  or  six  men;  and  that  even  though  he  re- 
ceives a  larger  salary  than  was  paid  any  one  of  the  five  or  six  be- 
fore, the  proportion  paid  for  supervision,  even  when  office  clerks* 
salaries  are  included,  has  diminished.  Janitors'  salaries,  fuel,  and 
repairs  are  fixed  charges  upon  the  school  revenue,  which  should 
not  much  increase  in  proportion  to  the  amount  per  pupil  avail- 
able for  school  purposes. 

In  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
the  distribution  of  the  money  spent  ($56,000,000)  by  one  hundred 
and  three  cities,  each  having  more  than  30,000  population,  among 
the  various  items  of  the  budget  is  as  shown  in  Table  103.^ 

The  best  way  to  decide  just  what  is  the  best  way  to  apportion 
the  money  among  the  various  items  of  the  budget  would  be  to 
find  out  which  school  system  is  doing  the  best  work,  by  testing 
the  pupils  in  the  system,  and  then  to  adopt  as  the  ideal  apportion- 
ment that  distribution  of  moneys  which  is  found  in  the  most 
efficient  school  systems. 

1  Harlan  Updegraff — A  Study  of  Expenses  of  City  School  Systems.  Bulletin, 
191 2:  No.  5. 


City  School  Expenditures 


325 


TABLE   103 

Per  Cent  of  Total  Expenses  for  Various  Items  of  the  Budget  for  all  Cities 

Combined 


Iteus 

General  control 

Elemental  schools .  . . 

Secondary  schools 

Normal,  evening,  vacation,  and  special  schools 

Miscellaneous  expenses 

Total 

Total  expenses,  general  control 

Salaries  of  teachers,  all  schools 

Salaries  and  expenses  of  supervision,  all  schools 

Text-books,  stationery,  and  general  school  supplies,  all  schools 

Janitors,  engineers,  and  firemen,  all  schools 

Other  expenses  of  operation,  all  schools 

Apparatus  and  equipment,  including  repairs  and  replacements  thereof 

all  schools 

Repairs  to  buildings 

Miscellaneous  expenses 

Total 


Peb  Cent 


3-45 
76.20 

U-93 
2-75 
2.67 


100. CO 


3-45 
63. g2 

215 
3-43 
6.92 
5-23 

1-57 
5  66 
2.67 


Relationships 

In  the  discussion  of  variability  given  above,  it  was  suggested 
that  a  more  careful  study  of  the  data  given  would  enable  us  to 
measure  exactly  the  relationships  which  exist  among  the  various 
items  of  the  budget.  Such  questions  of  relationship  naturally 
suggest  themselves  when  one  considers  the  distribution  of  money 
for  different  purposes.  Do  cities  which  spend  a  large  total 
amount  per  pupil  spend  a  correspondingly  large  amount  for  teach- 
ing? As  the  amount  per  pupil  increases,  is  more  money  spent 
for  every  purpose,  or  are  there  certain  items  of  expense  which  do 
not  increase  in  proportion  to  the  increased  cost  per  pupil?  What 
is  the  relation  between  a  large  amount  of  money  spent  for  super- 
vision and  the  amount  spent  for  text-books  and  supplies,  fuel, 
repairs,  etc.?    If  a  larger  proportion  than  usual  of  the  money 


326  Educational  Administration 

available  for  school  purposes  is  spent  for  janitors'  salaries,  what 
effect  may  we  expect  this  to  have  upon  teachers'  salaries?  These 
and  many  other  similar  questions  can  be  answered  by  determining 
the  relationships  which  exist  among  the  various  items  of  the 
budget,  on  both  the  cost  per  pupil  and  per  cent  of  total  bases. 

From  the  tables  of  deviations  of  medians  given  above  the  fact 
that  relationships  exist  might,  perhaps,  be  inferred,  but  no  one 
could  from  such  large  tables  of  details  infer  the  particular  relation- 
ships which  do  actually  exist.  It  is  just  here  that  the  Pearson 
Coefficient  of  Correlation  is  invaluable.  The  following  explana- 
tions, adapted  from  Thorndike's  Educational  Psychology  (page 
26),  will  explain  the  meaning  of  the  coefficient  of  correlation  to 
the  reader  not  already  familiar  with  its  use. 

"The  coefficient  of  correlation  is  a  simple  figure  so  calculated 
from  the  several  records  as  to  give  the  degree  of  relationship  be- 
tween any  two  items  which  will  best  account  for  all  the  separate 
cases  in  the  group.  In  other  words,  it  expresses  the  degree  of 
relationship  from  which  the  actual  cases  might  have  arisen  with 
least  improbability.  It  has  possible  values  from  +  100  per  cent 
through  o  to  —  100  per  cent." 

A  coefficient  of  correlation  of  +  100%  between  two  items  of  the 
budget  (say  teachers'  salaries  and  text-books)  on  the  basis  of  the 
cost  per  pupil  would  indicate  that  the  city  which  spent  the  most 
for  teachers'  salaries,  spent  the  most  for  text-books;  that  the  city 
which  spent  the  least  for  teachers'  salaries,  spent  the  least  for 
text-books;  that  if  the  cities  were  ranged  in  order  according  to 
the  amount  spent  for  teachers'  salaries,  and  then  in  order  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  spent  for  text-books,  the  two  rankings  would 
be  identical;  that  the  position  of  any  city  with  reference  to  the 
others  for  one  item  will  be  the  same  for  the  other  item  (both  being 
reduced  to  terms  of  the  variabilities  of  the  cost  per  pupil  as  units 
to  allow  comparison). 

A  coefficient  of  — 100%  would,  per  contra,  mean  that  the  city 


City  School  Expenditures  327 

which  spent  most  for  one  item  would  spend  the  smallest  amount 
for  the  other,  that  any  degree  above  the  average  or  median  in  the 
one  would  be  accompanied  by  the  same  degree  below  the  average 
or  median  for  the  other,  and  vice  versa.  A  coefficient  of  +  62% 
would  mean  that  (comparison  being  rendered  fair  here,  as  always, 
by  reduction  to  the  variabilities  as  units)  any  given  station  for 
one  item  would,  on  the  whole,  imply  62  hundredths  of  that  sta- 
tion for  the  other.  A  coefl&cient  of  — 62%  would,  of  course,  mean 
that  any  position  above  the  average  for  the  one  item  would,  on 
the  whole,  involve  a  position  below  the  average  for  the  other  item 
equal  to  62  hundredths  of  the  amount  the  first  was  above  the 
average. 

Table  104  gives  the  coefl&cients  which  were  found  on  the  cost 
per  pupil  basis.  The  first  column  gives  the  corrected  coefficient  ^ 
as  determined  from  the  coefficients  found  when  the  first  year's  fig- 
ures alone  were  used,  when  the  second  year's  figures  alone  were 
used,  and  when  the  average  for  the  two  years  was  used  (see  col- 
umns 3,  4,  and  2).  The  second  column  gives  the  coefficients 
derived  from  the  average  of  two  years'  figures;  the  third,  the 
coefficients  derived  from  the  first  year's  figures  from  cities  report- 
ing two  years;  the  fourth,  the  coefficients  derived  from  the  second 
year's  figures;  and  the  fifth,  the  coefficients  found  when  the  figures 
for  the  fifty-eight  cities  reporting  the  first  year  were  used. 

In  the  discussion  which  follows,  the  coefficients  referred  to  are 
always  the  corrected  coefficients,  unless  it  is  specifically  stated 
that  other  coefficients  are  meant.  I  believe  that  the  corrected 
coefficient  more  nearly  expresses  the  relationship  which  actually 
exists  among  the  various  items  correlated  than  does  any  other 
figure.^ 

1  This  correction  is  made  by  using  the  Spearman  formulae  for  the  correction  of 
the  Pearson  Coefficient.    See  American  Journal  of  Psychology  for  January,  1904. 

^  The  true  relationship  between  any  two  items  in  the  budget  for  these  cities  is 
the  relationship  which  would  be  found  if  we  had  perfect  measures  of  the  cities' 
tendencies  to  spend  money  for  school;  such,  for  instance,  as  their  budgets  for  forty 


328 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE    104 
Pearson  Coefficients  of  Correlation  Calculated  on  the  Cost  per  Pupil  Basis 


US; 


o.S 


Total  Cost  per  Pupil  correlated  with 
Teaching  and  Supervision l 

Total  Cost  per  Pupil  correlated  with 
Janitors'  Salaries , 

Total  Cost  f)er  Pupil  correlated  with 
Text-books  and  Supplies 

Total  Cost  per  Pupil  correlated  with 
Fuel t  2 

Total  Cost  per  Pupil  correlated  with 
Repairs 

Teaching  and  Supervision  correlated 
with  Janitors'  Salaries 

Teaching  correlated  with  Text -books 
and  Supplies 

Supervision  correlated  with  Text- 
books and  Supplies 

Supervision  correlated  with  Repairs. . 

Supervision  correlated  with  Teaching 

Supervision  correlated  with  Fuel 

Janitors'  Salaries  correlated  with 
Fuel 

Janitors'  Salaries  correlated  with  Re- 
pairs   

Repairs  correlated  with  Fuel 


+  I-OI5 

+  .716 

+  .955 

+  -522 

+  .246 

+  .746 

+  .737 

-I-  .869 

—  .128 

+  .366 

+  .11 

+  -531 

+  .2X0 

+  .147 


«  S  =^  rt 

-O  >  -^  a> 

^    'i    t.    > 

C   UtC-rj 
O  *^  J3    O 


<U   HI    u    u 


3^- 


tx  o 


U     0= 


+  .96 

-f  .70 

+  .8s 

+  .50 

+  .47 

+  .63 

+  .76 

+  •57 
+  .18 
+  .31 
+  .02 

-f.61 

+  ■32 
+  .21 


-c- 

> 

a 

>.■- 

'^■^  -       1 

c 

2v!2 

0 

^  'Q 

iid 

P5 

ui^a 

+ 

■  99 

+  .S6 

+  .67 

+ 

•  34 

+ 

.56 

+ 

•  44 

+ 

•35 

+ 

•51 

— 

.09 

+ 

•  05 

+ 

.04 

- 

.08 

+ 

■31 

.001 

o  c  5  o 


+  .88 

+  •73 

+  •64 

+  .40 

+  35 

+  •.53 

+  •65 

+  •27 
+  •07 
+  .12 
-f.oi 

+  •45 

+  •24 
-{-.  20 


1  That  this  coefficient  as  corrected  gives  over  100%  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  third  decimal  place 
is  lacking  in  the  coefficients  from  which  the  correction  was  made. 

2  The  item  "fuel"  as  reported  for  the  two  years  is  less  definite  than  most  of  the  other  items,  because 
fuel  bought,  or  at  least  fuel  paid  for,  one  year  is  often  used  the  next  year;  consequently,  only  the  second 
method  given  by  Spearman  for  the  correction  of  the  Pearson  coefficient  is  used.  This  method  is  based 
on  the  fact  that  an  increase  in  the  number  of  measures  of  each  of  the  facts  originally  measured  in- 
creases its  accuracy. 

The  first  question  which  our  coefficients  enable  us  to  answer 
concerns  the  relationship  of  the  total  cost  per  pupil  to  the  prin- 
cipal items  of  the  budget.    Does  an  increased  cost  per  pupil  mean 

or  fifty  years.  The  effect  of  chance  deviations  of  any  single  year  from  the  cities' 
general  tendencies  is  to  bring  the  calculated  correlation  from  its  true  value  toward 
zero.  By  the  Spearman  formulae  we  estimate  the  true  relationship  (i)  from  the 
obtained  relationship  and  the  amount  of  deviation  of  one  year's  budget  fronj  an- 
other year's,  or  (2)  from  the  difference  between  the  relationship  obtained  from  one 
year's  budget  and  that  from  two  or  more  years'  budgets.  For  the  theory  of  the 
correction  see,  in  general,  Thorndike,  Menial  and  Social  M easicrements ,  pp.  128  and 
129,  and  in  detail  C.  Spearman,  on  "The  Proof  and  Measurement  of  Association 
between  Two  Things,"  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  January,  1904. 


City  School  Expenditures  329 

a  proportionate  increase  in  the  amount  spent  for  teaching  and 
supervision,  for  janitors'  salaries,  for  text-books  and  supplies,  for 
fuel,  and  for  repairs;  or  is  the  relationship  between  the  total  cost 
per  pupil  and  the  various  items  of  the  budget  closer  for  some  than 
for  others?  Examining  our  coefficients  we  find  that  the  relation- 
ship between  the  total  cost  per  pupil  and  the  cost  for  teaching 
and  supervision  is  expressed  by  a  coefficient  of  +  100%,  i.  e.  the 
amount  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision  is  determined  by  the 
total  amount  spent  per  pupil.  If  a  small  total  amount  per  pupil 
is  spent,  we  may  expect  a  correspondingly  small  amount  per 
pupil  for  teaching  and  supervision;  if  a  large  total  amount 
per  pupil  is  spent,  we  may  expect  a  correspondingly  large  amount 
per  pupil  for  teaching  and  supervision;  if  the  cities  were  ranked  in 
order  on  the  basis  of  total  amount  spent  per  pupil,  and  then  in 
order  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  spent  per  pupil  for  teaching  and 
supervision,  we  would  expect  to  find  that  the  rank  of  the  cities 
would  be  the  same  for  each  item.  The  next  closest  relation- 
ship is  that  for  text-books  and  supplies,  which  gives  a  coefii- 
cient  of  +  .955.  The  others  are,  in  order,  janitors'  salaries, 
-I-  .716;  fuel,  +  .522;  and  repairs,  -I-  .246.  In  general,  these  re- 
lationships show  that  the  amount  spent  per  pupil  for  teaching 
and  supervision,  and  for  text-books  and  supplies,  corresponds 
very  closely  to  the  total  amount  spent  per  pupil;  if  the  cost  per 
pupil  is  above  the  average  we  may  expect  that  the  amount  spent 
per  pupil  will  be  high  for  these  items,  and  any  diminution  in  the 
total  amount  spent  per  pupil  is  likely  to  be  accompanied  by  a 
smaller  expenditure  per  pupil  for  these  purposes. 

The  coefficients  found  for  janitors'  salaries  and  fuel  show  a  less 
close  correspondence.  From  the  relationship  here  we  may  infer 
that  the  rank  of  any  city  above  or  below  the  median  in  total  cost 
per  pupil  might  be  compatible  with  various  ranks  for  janitors' 
salaries  or  fuel,  which  would  tend  to  be  approximately  three- 
fourths  of  the  rank  in  total  cost  per  pupil. 


330 


Educational  Administration 


The  item  of  repairs  is  least  closely  related  with  the  total  cost 
per  pupil.  This  is  as  we  might  have  expected.  The  fact  that 
a  school  system  is  expensive  does  not  increase  the  cost  of  repairing 
the  buildings,  except  in  so  far  as  the  labor  necessary  to  do  the 
work  may  cost  more  in  those  cities  which  are  able  to  spend  the 
large  amount  per  pupil.  We  might  expect  the  expensive  city 
to  keep  its  buildings  in  better  repair  than  the  poorer  cities,  which, 
with  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  labor  mentioned  above,  would 
seem  to  account  for  the  coefficient  of  +  .246. 

The  fact  that  we  find  a  direct  relationship  between  the  total 
cost  per  pupil  and  the  cost  per  pupil  for  each  of  the  principal 
items  of  expenditure  makes  it  clear  that,  in  general,  an  expensive 
school  system  is  expensive  because  it  spends  more  money  for 
everything,  and  that  an  inexpensive  school  system  is  one  that 
retrenches  all  along  the  line.  However,  the  fact  that  certain  of 
the  items  are  less  closely  related  to  the  total  cost  per  pupil  than 
others  does  indicate  that  these  items  will  probably  not  be  found 
to  increase  or  decrease  in  a  proportion  equal  to  that  of  the  items 

TABLE  10s 


1-t 

o'S. 

a 
.2 
.2 

in 

1.§ 

3. 

a 

1 

'S 
•-> 

•a 
a 

|| 

X 

"3 

3 

2 
0. 

Average  (or  the  five  cities  near- 

$2Q.OO 

31  .00 
3410 

51-70 

29.00 

27.70 
2SSO 

20.80 

$17.80 

19.20 
21.80 

30.80 

17.80 

18.20 
15-70 

15.60 

$2.20 

3.20 
2.30 

S.40 

2.20 

I -30 
2.40 

1.60 

$20.00 

22.40 
24. 10 

36.20 
20.00 

19  so 
18.10 

15-20 

$1.90 
1.80 

2.20 
2.80 

1 .90 

r  .90 
I  SO 

1 .  10 

$1.80 

1.30 
1.80 

4.80 

1.80 

1 .60 
1 .60 

1 .  10 

$1.90 

1 .90 
2.20 

2.20 

1 .90 

I -SO 
1 .40 

I  SO 

$1.60 

First  group  of  five  cities  above 
the  median  group 

Second  group  of  five  cities. . . . 

The  two  cities  having  the  great- 
est expense  per  pupil 

Average  for  the  five  cities  near- 

1.30 
1-30 

2.00 
1.60 

First  group  of  five  cities  below 
the  median 

Second  group  of  five  cities. . . . 

The    three    cities    havmg    the 
smallest  expense  per  pupil. . 

1.30 
.90 

.60 

City  School  Expenditures  331 

showing  a  closer  relationship,  nor  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
in  the  total  cost  per  pupil. 

Table  105  shows  just  how  an  increased  or  a  decreased  total 
cost  per  pupil  affects  the  principal  items  of  the  budget.  The 
figures  given  refer  to  dollars,  and  are  calculated  from  the  average 
amount  spent  for  each  item  for  two  years.  The  data  are  from 
thirty  cities  reporting  for  the  school  years  1902-1903  and  1903- 
1904. 

Explanation  of  Table  105 

The  first  line  of  the  table  gives  the  average  total  cost  per  pupil 
and  the  average  amount  spent  for  each  of  the  principal  items  of 
the  budget,  for  the  five  cities  which  have  a  total  cost  per  pupil 
nearest  the  median  total  cost  per  pupil.  The  next  hne  gives  the 
same  information  for  the  group  of  five  cities  having  the  next 
highest  total  cost  per  pupil.  The  next  two  lines  are  explained  in 
like  manner.  The  fifth  line  repeats  the  first  line.  The  sixth  line 
gives  the  average  total  cost  per  pupil  and  the  average  expenditure 
for  the  several  items  of  expenditure  for  the  five  cities  which  have 
the  next  lowest  total  cost  per  pupil  below  the  median  group.  The 
next  two  lines  are  explained  in  like  manner. 

From  this  Table  105  the  relationships  already  shown  by  the 
coefficients  of  correlation  given  in  Table  104  are  made  clear.  In 
general,  the  table  shows  that  an  increased  cost  per  pupil  means 
an  increased  expenditure  for  each  item,  and  that  a  decreased  total 
cost  per  pupil  is  accompanied  by  a  decrease  in  the  amount  spent 
per  pupil  for  everything.  An  increase  of  two  dollars  in  the  total 
cost  per  pupil  (see  Hne  2)  is  accompanied  by  an  increase  of  $2.40 
per  pupil  in  amount  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision,  and  a 
decrease  in  janitors'  salaries,  text-books  and  supplies,  and  repairs, 
while  fuel  remains  the  same.  In  the  next  group,  however,  with 
an  increase  in  total  cost  per  pupil  above  the  median  group  of 


332  Educational  Administration 

$5.10,  teaching  and  supervision  show  an  increase  of  $4.10,  jani- 
tors' salaries  and  fuel  show  an  increase  of  thirty  cents  each,  text- 
books and  supplies  remain  the  same,  and  repairs  decrease  thirty 
cents  per  pupil.  The  next  group,  with  an  increased  total  cost  per 
pupil  of  $22.70,  gives  an  increase  for  teaching  and  supervision  of 
$16.20,  an  increase  for  janitors'  salaries  of  ninety  cents,  an  in- 
crease for  text-books  and  supplies  of  $3,  an  increase  for  fuel  of 
thirty  cents,  and  an  increase  for  repairs  of  forty  cents  per  pupil. 

By  examining  the  part  of  the  table  giving  the  expenditures  for 
groups  of  cities  spending  less  than  the  median  group,  we  find  the 
decrease  in  all  items  more  constant  than  was  the  increase  for  the 
cities  spending  more  than  was  spent  by  the  median  group.  The 
very  fact  that  the  city  spends  less  than  the  average  probably 
means  that  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  keep  the  expenditure  in 
any  one  item  up  to  the  average  without  eliminating  other  neces- 
sary expenditures.  On  the  other  hand,  a  city  spending  more 
than  the  average  can  put  the  additional  money  in  any  place 
where  the  demand,  of  one  kind  or  another,  may  be  strongest. 

Let  us  return  again  to  a  consideration  of  the  relationships 
given  in  Table  104.  The  relationship  ( -f-  .746)  between  teaching 
and  supervision  and  janitors'  salaries  tends  to  confirm  the  obser- 
vation made  above  with  reference  to  the  relation  between  these 
items  and  the  total  cost  per  pupil.  We  may  not  expect  janitors' 
salaries  to  correspond  so  closely  to  the  total  cost  per  pupil  as  do 
teachers'  salaries.  Apparently  there  are  causes  other  than  those 
(the  cost  per  pupil  of  teaching  and  supervision)  which  influence 
the  amount  per  pupil  spent  for  janitors'  salaries. 

The  coefiicients  for  teaching  and  for  supervision  with  text- 
books and  supplies  (-1-  .737  and  +  .869,  respectively),  indicate  a 
closer  relationship  between  the  cost  per  pupil  for  supervision 
and  for  text-books  and  supplies  than  exists  between  the  cost  per 
pupil  for  teaching  and  for  text-books  and  supplies. 

That  the  relationship  between  supervision  and  repairs  is 


City  School  Expenditures  333 

negative  (+.128)  might  seem  to  imply  that  high-priced  super- 
vision means  better  care  of  buildings.  The  coefficient  of  super- 
vision correlated  with  teachers'  salaries  is  — .366.  This  is  rather 
smaller  than  one  might  have  expected.  It  is  rather  natural  to 
suppose  that  high-priced  supervisors  would  want  high-priced 
teachers,  and  that  a  city  spending  a  large  amount  per  pupil  for 
teachers  would  spend  a  correspondingly  large  amount  for  super- 
vision. The  small  coefficient  found  for  supervision  correlated 
with  fuel  (-l-.ii),  seems  to  indicate  that  while  greater  expense 
for  supervisors  increases  the  amount  spent  for  text-books  and 
supplies  (see  coefficient  for  supervision  with  text-books  and 
supplies),  it  has  little  in  common  with  the  expense  for  fuel. 

The  relationship  between  janitors'  salaries  and  fuel,  and  jani- 
tors' salaries  and  repairs,  is  expressed  by  coefficients  of  -I-  .531 
and  +  .219,  respectively.  It  will  be  remembered  that  fuel  is 
more  closely  correlated  with  the  total  cost  per  pupil  than  is 
janitors'  salaries.  This  being  true,  it  would  seem  that  the  corre- 
spondence between  janitors'  salaries  and  fuel  might  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  they  are  both  determined  largely  by  the  total 
amount  spent  per  pupil.  It  was  found  also  that  supervision  and 
repairs  show  a  negative  relationship,  and  here  we  find  a  positive 
relationship  between  janitors'  salaries  and  repairs  nearly  equal 
to  the  relationship  between  repairs  and  the  total  cost  per  pupil. 
Apparently  costly  supervision  means  more  for  economy  in  repairs 
than  does  a  large  amount  per  pupil  spent  for  janitors'  salaries. 

The  next  table  (No.  106)  gives  the  coefficients  which  were  cal- 
culated on  the  "per  cent  of  total"  basis. 

These  coefficients  show  what  effect  the  spending  of  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  money  available  for  one  item  has  on  the  propor- 
tion spent  for  other  items. 


334 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   io6 
Pearson  Coefficients  of  Corselation  Calculated  on  the  Per  Cent  of  Total  Basis 


Teaching    and     Supervision 

correlated    witfi    Janitors' 

Salaries 

Teaching     correlated     with 

Text-books  and  Supplies.  . 
Janitors'  Salaries  correlated 

with  Fuel 

Janitors'  Salaries  correlated 

with  Repairs 

Supervision   correlated   with 

Text-books  and  Supplies .  . 
Supervision  correlated  with 

Repairs 

Supervision   correlated  with 

Teaching '.  .  . 

Supervision   correlated  with 

Fuel 

Repairs  correlated  with  Fuel 


.  c 

•0  -0  „ 

■«  „ 

•vy  ^ 

■0  Yi 

Coefficient  deriv 
from  the  averag 

of  first  and  seco 
years'  figures  (3 
cities) 

Coefficient  deriv 

from  first  year 

figures  for  citie 

reporting  two 

years'  figures  (3 

cities) 

Coefficient  deriv 
from  second  yea 
figures  (30  citie 

Coefficient  deriv 

from  first  year' 

figures  for  all  cit 

reporting  (58 

cities) 



3S6 

—  •30 

— -23 

—  •43 

-.48 

- 

746 

-.46 

—  .09 

—  ■59 

—  .12 

- 

024 

—  .03 

+  .12 

—  ■33 

+  .26 

+ 

iSS 

+  .17 

+  .12 

+  .48 

+  .13 

+ 

203 

+  .17 

+  .17 

+  .27 

+  .OI 

- 

409 

—  .28 

—  .06 

-•38 

+  •03 

- 

983 

—  .68 

—  •54 

—  .69 

-67 

— 

.^33 

— .  20 

—  17 

—  03 

—  .02 

+ 

IQS 

—  •03 

+  003 

+  .12 

+  .23 

In  this  table  the  significant  thing  is  not  so  much  the  size 
of  the  positive  or  negative  coefficients  as  the  order,  the  relative 
closeness  of  relationship  or  opposition  among  the  various  items. 
Rearranging  the  table  on  this  basis  and  calling  the  median  rela- 
tionship zero,  and  transmuting  the  others  on  this  basis,  we 
have  Table  107. 

TABLE    107 


Transmuted 
Coefficients 


Supervision  correlated  with  Teaching 

Teaching  "  "     Text-books  and  Supplies 

Supervision  "  "     Repairs 

Teaching  and  Supervision  correlated  with  Janitors'  Salaries 

Supervision  correlated  with  Fuel 

Janitors'  Salaries  correlated  with  F'uel 

"  "  "  "     Repairs 

Repairs  correlated  with  Fuel 

Supervision  correlated  with  Text-books  and  Supplies 


—  •650 

—  .413 

—  .076 

—  .023 

o 
+  .309 
+  .488 
+  .52S 
+  .536 


I  believe  that  the  transmuted  coefficients  more  nearly  express 
the  true  relationship  than  do  those  originally  found,  for  we  must 


City  School  Expcttditures  335 

have  expected  a  negative  relationship  between  any  two  items, 
because  a  larger  proportion  than  usual  spent  for  one  item  leaves 
a  smaller  proportion  of  the  total  to  be  divided  among  the  other 
items  of  the  budget.  So  far  as  the  coefficients  obtained  enable 
us  to  judge,  this  negative  relationship,  due  simply  to  the  fact 
that  a  larger  proportion  of  money  than  usual  spent  for  any  one 
item  leaves  a  smaller  proportion  for  other  items,  is  approximately 
the  relationship  half-way  between  the  extremes — the  relationship 
between  supervision  and  fuel,  —  .333.  If  we  call  this  relation- 
ship zero,  the  transmuted  relationships  give  us,  as  nearly  as  we 
can  obtain  them,  the  relationships  between  the  other  items  freed 
from  this  constant  error. 

Let  us  consider  the  transmuted  coefficients.  Suppose  a  city 
spends  more  than  the  usual  proportion  for  supervision,  what 
other  items  may  we  expect  to  find  receiving  an  unusual  propor- 
tion of  the  money  spent?  The  coefficient  of  -1-  .536  between 
supervision  and  text-books  and  supplies  indicates  that  the  proba- 
bility is  that  a  city  which  spends  a  large  proportion  for  one  of 
these  items  will  spend  a  large  proportion  for  the  other — that  we 
may  expect  to  find  some  cities  unusual  both  in  respect  to  the 
proportion  spent  for  supervision  and  that  spent  for  text-books 
and  supplies.  The  positive  coefficients  between  janitors'  salaries, 
fuel,  and  repairs,  no  matter  which  two  are  taken  together,  shows 
that  in  cities  where  one  of  these  items  is  proportionately  large, 
the  others  will  probably  receive  more  than  the  usual  proportion. 
Comparing  these  coefficients  with  those  found  for  teaching  and 
supervision  with  janitors'  salaries  and  supervision  with  fuel, 
it  is  suggested  that  some  boards  of  education  are  interested 
particularly  in  the  physical  side — the  buildings,  their  care,  etc. — 
and  that  the  over-emphasis  on  this  side  means  less  money  for 
the  purely  educational  activities.  The  very  large  negative  co- 
efficient for  supervision  correlated  with  teachers'  salaries  would 
doubtless  be  reduced  if  more  accurate  reports  of  the  amounts 


336  Educational  Administration 

spent  for  each  of  these  items  were  available.  It  is  in  this  relation- 
ship between  the  two  items  that  any  mistakes  in  reporting  in 
either  an  amount  which  really  belonged  to  the  other  would  be 
most  apparent.  Any  amount  reported  as  teaching  which  should 
have  been  given  as  supervision  would  make  the  amount  for  teach- 
ing too  large  and  the  amount  for  supervision  too  small,  and  the 
opposite  would  be  true  if  an  amount  which  should  have  been 
reported  as  teaching  were  given  as  supervision.  In  either  case 
such  mistakes  would  make  this  particular  coefficient  show  a  more 
pronounced  negative  relationship  than  actually  exists.  Such  mis- 
takes would  not,  however,  have  a  like  effect  on  other  coefficients, 
where  the  increase  or  decrease  in  the  item  of  supervision  or  teach- 
ing has  no  effect  on  the  other  item  correlated.  The  fact  that  the 
amounts  given  for  teaching  or  supervision  may  in  one  case  be 
slightly  too  large  and  in  another  slightly  too  small,  means  that, 
except  when  the  two  items  themselves  are  correlated,  the  mistake 
in  one  direction  would  be  offset  by  the  mistake  in  the  other. 

The  relationship  between  teachers'  salaries  and  text-books 
and  supplies  ( —  413)  is  particularly  interesting  when  contrasted 
with  the  relationship  between  supervision  and  text-books  and 
supplies  (+  .536).  If  a  city  spends  an  undue  proportion  for  super- 
vision we  may  expect  then  an  unusually  large  proportion  will  be 
spent  for  text-books  and  supplies;  while  the  opposite  condition 
holds  for  the  proportion  spent  for  teaching.  Possibly  the  relation- 
ship between  supervision  and  text-books  and  supplies  is  simply 
that  the  highly  paid  supervisors  are  able  to  get  appropriations 
for  books  and  supplies,  and  that  poorly  paid  supervisors  do  not 
have  much  to  do  with  the  actual  use  or  waste  of  supplies  fur- 
nished. On  the  other  hand  if  there  is  anything  that  a  good 
teacher  wants,  it  is  plenty  of  books  and  supplies  of  the  right 
quality,  consequently  it  seems  strange  that  there  should  be  this 
opposition  in  the  relative  proportions  spent  for  these  two  items. 
However,  expensive  teachers  may  effect  economy  by  the  proper 


City  School  Expenditures  337 

use  of  materials,  and  poorly  paid  teachers  may  be  the  most  care- 
less. There  is  nothing  that  hurts  a  book  so  little  as  using  it 
properly,  and  it  is  conceivable  that  the  best  teachers  may  actually 
use  fewer  supplies  than  those  with  less  ability. 

Table  108  gives  the  correlation  of  the  first  and  second  year's 
figures  on  both  the  cost  per  pupil  and  per  cent  of  total  bases 
These  coefficients  give  us  some  idea  of  the  relative  stability  of 
the  various  items  of  the  budget.    They  are  used  also  in  making 
the  Spearman  correction. 

TABLE   io8 

First  and  second  year's  figures  correlated.    Thirty  cities  reporting  for  the  school 
years  1902-03  and  1903-04. 

I — Cost  per  Pupil  Basis 

Total  cost  p>er  pupil  correlated  with  total  cost  per  pupil +  -92 

Supervision  and  teaching  correlated  with   supervision  and  teaching +  •  89 

Supervision  "  "      supervision +  69 

Teachers'  salaries  "  "      teachers'  salaries +  •  79 

Janitors'        "  "  "      janitors'        "      +  90 

Text-books  and  supplies  "  "      text-books  and  supplies + .  89 

Fuel  "  "      fuel +.17 

Repairs         "  "  "      repairs +  -34 

II — Per  Cent  of  Total  Basis 

Supervision  and  teaching  correlated  with  supervision  and  teaching +56 


Supervision 
Teachers'  salaries 
Janitors'        " 
Text-books  and  supplies 
Fuel 
Repairs 


supervision +58 

teachers'  salaries +-5i 

janitors'        "      -f- .  80 

text-books  and  supplies +  ■  65 

fuel -I-.34 

repairs +54 


The  total  cost  per  pupil  gives  a  coefficient  of  +  .92,  showing 
that  the  amount  per  child  spent  does  not  vary  much  from  year 
to  year — the  expensive  city  remains  so,  and  the  city  spending 
little  does  not  suddenly  devote  a  much  larger  proportion  of  its 
revenues  for  schools.  Almost  as  constant  as  the  total  cost  per 
pupil  are  the  amounts  spent  for  janitors'  salaries,  text-books  and 
supplies,  teaching  and  supervision,  giving,  as  they  do,  coefficients 


338  Educational  Administration 

of  +  .90,  +  .89,  +  .89,  respectively.  The  items  of  teaching  and 
supervision,  when  taken  alone,  show  greater  variation  (coeffi- 
cients of  +.79  and  +  .69,  respectively),  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that,  in  reporting,  amounts  properly  belonging  to  one  item  were 
reported  under  the  other,  rather  than  in  a  change  of  policy  as  to 
the  relative  amount  to  be  allowed  for  teaching  and  for  super- 
vision. 

As  one  might  expect,  the  amount  spent  for  repairs  varies 
more  than  any  of  the  items  mentioned  above  (a  coefficient  of 
-I-  .34  was  found).  A  large  amount  spent  for  repairs  one  year 
means  a  smaller  amount  the  next  year,  rather  than  an  equally 
large  amount.  That  the  coefficient  for  fuel  is  as  low  as  +  .17, 
might  seem  to  indicate  that  fuel  in  excess  of  that  which  is  used 
is  often  bought  and  paid  for  out  of  a  single  year's  budget,  rather 
than  that  there  is  any  very  great  difference  in  the  value  of  the 
fuel  actually  consumed  each  year. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  proportion  of  the  total  which 
is  spent  for  any  one  item  for  two  successive  years,  we  find  the 
variability  rather  greater  than  for  the  amount  spent  per  pupil. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  while  the  amount  per  pupil  spent  for 
any  one  purpose  remains  fairly  constant,  any  additional  expendi- 
ture for  some  new  item  which  increases  the  gross  amount  spent, 
or  any  diminution  in  any  item  of  expenditure,  affects  the  propor- 
tion which  this  item  is  of  the  total  amount  spent.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  in  the  relative  constancy  with  which  a  given  propor- 
tion is  spent  for  any  item,  janitors'  salaries  lead,  followed  by 
text-books  and  suppHes,  supervision,  teaching  and  supervision, 
repairs,  teaching,  and  fuel. 

Table  109  gives  the  coefficients  for  the  total  cost  per  pupil 
correlated  with  the  per  cent  which  each  item  is  of  the  total. 
These  coefficients  tell  us  what  effect  a  larger  or  smaller  expendi- 
ture per  pupil  may  be  expected  to  have  on  the  proportion  which 
is  spent  for  any  one  item  of  the  budget. 


City  School  Expenditures  '  339 

TABLE   109 
Pearson  Coefficients  of  Correlation 

The  total  cost  per  pupil  correlated  with  the  per  cent  which  each  item  is  of  the 
total.  The  average  cost  per  pupil  and  per  cent  of  total  for  two  years  is  used  as  the 
basis  of  calculation. 

Total  cost  per  pupil  correlated  with  per  cent  of  total  spent  for: 

Teaching  and  Supervision — .05 

Janitors'  Salaries — .06 

Text-books  and  Supplies +35 

Fuel — .22 

Repairs +13 

Apparently  the  total  cost  per  pupil  may  not  be  expected  to 
affect  the  proportion  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision  and  for 
janitors'  salaries.  Cities  spending  a  large  amount  per  pupil  do 
not  necessarily  spend  any  greater  proportion  of  their  money  for 
these  purposes  than  do  cities  spending  a  smaller  amount  per  child. 
(The  coeflScients  of  —  .05  and  —  .06  are  so  small  as  to  be  practi- 
cally negligible.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  positive  coefficients  of 
+  .35  for  text-books  and  supplies  indicates  that  there  is  a  direct 
relationship  between  the  total  amount  spent  per  pupil  and  the 
proportion  which  is  spent  for  this  purpose.  We  may  expect  an 
expensive  city  to  spend  a  larger  proportion  of  its  money  for  text- 
books and  supplies  than  does  the  poorer  city,  even  though  we 
may  infer  from  this  coefficient  that  the  increase  in  the  proportion 
spent  for  this  purpose  will  not  be  proportionate  to  the  increased 
cost  per  pupil.  The  negative  coefficient  for  fuel  shows  that  the 
proportion  spent  for  fuel  decreases  as  the  total  cost  per  pupil 
increases.  The  most  expensive  city  will  probably  spend  a  smaller 
proportion  of  its  money  for  fuel  than  a  poor  city.  That  the  pro- 
portion spent  for  repairs  should  give  a  positive  coefficient  of  +  .13 
when  correlated  with  the  total  cost  per  pupil  seems  to  indicate 
that  there  is  some  tendency  for  the  more  expensive  cities  to  spend 
a  larger  proportion  for  repairs  than  the  less  expensive  city — 
possibly  the  cities  spending  the  greater  amount  per  pupil  do  keep 
their  buildings  in  better  repair. 


340  Educational  Administration 

Table  i  lo  gives  the  average  salary  received  by  elementary  and 
by  high  school  teachers,  and  the  average  daily  wage  received  by 
carpenters,  bricklayers,  and  day  laborers.  This  information  was 
calculated  from  two  years'  data  for  the  thirty  cities  reporting  for 
the  school  years  1902-1903  and  1903-1904.  The  figure  given  for 
elementary  and  high  school  teachers'  salaries  was  derived  by 
finding  first  the  average  salary  paid  to  each  class  of  teachers  for 
each  year  separately  by  dividing  the  gross  amount  spent  for  each 
item  by  the  number  of  teachers  (see  form  sent  to  superintend- 
ents), and  then  the  average  for  the  two  years  was  taken.  In  a 
similar  manner,  from  the  report  given  by  city  superintendents  on 
the  blank  filled  out  by  them,  the  average  wage  of  carpenters, 
bricklayers,  and  day  laborers  was  calculated.  The  information 
concerning  the  daily  wage  of  carpenters,  bricklayers,  and  day 
laborers  is  probably  less  exact  than  we  might  wish,  but  suffi- 
ciently accurate,  I  think,  to  show  whether  or  not  any  relationship 
exists  between  the  amounts  paid  to  this  class  of  laborers  and  to 
teachers.  It  is  for  the  purpose  last  mentioned  that  these  data  are 
given.  Coefficients  will  be  given  to  show  what  relationship  exists 
between  the  wages  paid  carpenters,  bricklayers,  and  day  laborers 
and  the  salaries  paid  teachers. 

Before  we  give  the  coefficients  showing  the  relationship  be- 
tween teachers'  salaries  and  the  wages  paid  carpenters,  brick- 
layers, and  day  laborers,  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  variability 
in  teachers'  salaries,  as  shown  by  the  table  given  above.  The 
average  salary  of  the  elementary  school  teachers  varies  from 
$350.60  in  city  No.  27  to  $691.30 — almost  twice  as  much — in 
city  No.  8,  The  average  salary  paid  high  school  teachers  varies 
from  $558  in  city  No.  48  to  $1332.80 — almost  two  and  a  half 
times  as  much — in  city  No.  30.  Whatever  we  may  believe  about 
the  difference  in  the  cost  of  living,  no  one  would  be  willing  to 
maintain  that  the  cost  of  living  in  one  of  the  cities  is  double  that 
in  another  of  those  covered  by  this  study.     In  no  case  does  the 


City  School  Expenditures 


341 


TABLE   110 


i 

verage  High  School 
Teachers'  Salary 

1 

1= 

< 

< 

< 

< 

< 

5 

S  9555 

$643.1 

6 

747 

I 

407 -5 

$2.50 

$3-25 

Si -75 

8 

836 

4 

691.6 

2.50 

4 

00 

2.00 

13 

930 

S40.8 

2.62 

3 

75 

I -75 

14 

820 

8 

425 -9 

3.00 

4 

50 

2.00 

'§ 

747 

9 

528.2 

3.00 

4 

00 

1.87 

16 

770 

5 

386.4 

3.12 

4 

68 

1-50 

20 

736 

8 

537-2 

2-75 

4 

00 

2.50 

27 

563 

3 

350.6 

28 

931 

2 

460.4 

2-75 

3 

50 

1-50 

39 

760 

9 

452-5 

2.50 

3 

25 

I -75 

30 

1,332 

8 

574- 

350 

4 

65 

2.25 

31 

877 

6 

373-6 

2.50 

3 

50 

1.62 

32 

801 

8 

538.1 

3-25 

4 

25 

2.00 

34 

819 

7 

513-2 

2.50 

3 

00 

150 

35 

702 

8 

482.5 

3.00 

4 

00 

1-50 

36 

603 

3 

487-5 

387 

3 

50 

I  50 

37 

657 

I 

381-7 

2.90 

4 

00 

1-85 

39 

724 

9 

418. 1 

2.50 

3 

25 

1-50 

40 

732 

9 

366.2 

2.50 

2 

SO 

1-50 

41 

663 

2 

429.1 

2-75 

4 

50 

1   75 

42 

776 

5 

486.1 

2.62 

3 

30 

1-50 

43 

80s 

4 

499- 

2.60 

3 

55 

I -75 

45 

83s 

8 

504-1 

2.62 

4 

00 

1-93 

48 

558 

415-2 

3.00 

3 

75 

I  50 

52 

876 

7 

594-5 

2-85 

4 

00 

1-50 

54 

884 

2 

557-5 

3-37 

4 

25 

1-75 

55 

64s 

8 

399-6 

2-75 

3 

50 

I  50 

56 

887 

S 

557- 

350 

3 

67 

2-45 

57 

1,124 

I 

662.7 

350 

4 

70 

2.25 

highest  daily  wage  paid  a  carpenter,  bricklayer,  or  day  laborer, 
as  reported,  equal  double  that  paid  to  the  poorest  paid  laborer 
in  any  one  of  these  occupations. 

The  coefficients  given  above  show  an  increased  direct  relation- 
ship between  teachers'  salaries  and  the  daily  wages  paid  artisans 
and  day  laborers  as  we  go  from  carpenters,  to  bricklayers,  to 


342  Educational  Administration 

TABLE   III 

Pearson  Coefficients  of  Correlation 

Salaries  of  teachers  correlated  with  the  daily  wages  of  carpenters,  bricklayers, 
and  day  laborers.  The  average  salary  of  teachers  and  the  average  daily  wage  for 
two  years  are  used  as  the  basis  of  calculation. 

Elementary  Teachers'  Salaries  correlated  with: 

Carpenters'  Wages + .  28 

Bricklayers'  Wages +  -44 

Day  Laborers'  Wages +  •  57 

High  School  Teachers'  Salaries  correlated  with: 

Carpenters'  Wages +25 

Bricklayers'  Wages +  .41 

Day  Laborers'  Wages +57 

High   School  Teachers'   Salaries  correlated  with  Elementary 

Teachers'  Salaries + .  63 

day  laborers.  If  the  wages  paid  to  day  laborers  are  an  index  of 
the  cost  of  living,  we  may  infer  that  cost  of  living  does  enter  as  a 
determining  factor  in  the  amount  paid  to  teachers;  not  that  the 
amount  of  salary  paid  to  the  teacher  corresponds  exactly  to  the 
cost  of  living,  but  that  the  tendency  will  be  for  cities  where  living 
is  high  to  pay  rather  more  than  the  average  salary,  and  for  cities 
where  the  cost  of  living  is  below  the  average,  to  pay  its  teachers 
less  than  the  average. 

TABLE   112 

Coefficients  of  correlation  calculated  on  the  cost  jier  pupil  basis,  the  figure  used 
in  finding  the  cost  per  pupil  being  half-way  between  the  average  number  of  puf:)ils 
in  daily  attendance  and  the  average  daily  enrollment.  Forty-nine  cities,  reporting 
for  the  year  1902-1903. 

Total  cost  per  pupil  correlated  with  Teaching  and  Supervision +93 

"         "       "       "              "  "     Janitors'  Salaries -j-  .82 

"         "       "       "              "  "    Text-books  and  Supplies +  •  71 

Teaching  and  Supervision  "  "     Janitors'  Salaries +  -65 

Teaching                               "  "     Text-books  and  Supplies +  .66 

Supervision.                          "  "              "             "           "     +  -34 

"                                  "  "     Repairs +15 

"                                  "  "     Teaching +-iS 

Janitors'  Salaries                "  "     Fuel +  40 

«              '«                     "  "    Repairs -f.4S 


City  School  Expenditures  343 

If  these  coefficients  are  compared  with  those  given  for  the  first 
year's  figures,  they  will  be  found  to  agree  in  the  main  with  them. 
Whatever  variation  is  found  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  on  the 
basis  on  which  this  table  is  computed,  nine  cities  had  to  be 
omitted  because  they  did  not  furnish  the  necessary  data  for 
the  average  daily  enrollment. 

Table  113  which  follows,  shows  the  relation  between  the  pro- 
portion of  pupils  attending  elementary  and  high  schools,  and 
the  proportion  of  the  total  amount  spent  for  salaries  which  is 
used  for  the  salaries  of  the  two  classes  of  teachers.  The  table 
also  gives  the  number  of  students  enrolled  per  teacher,  which 
offers  another  basis  for  comparison  as  between  elementary  and 
high  school  teachers.  The  number  of  pupils  as  given  in  this  table 
is  in  every  case  the  average  as  found  from  two  years'  total  enroll- 
ment figures.  In  determining  the  number  of  teachers,  and  in 
determining  the  amount  of  money  spent  for  each  group,  kinder- 
garten teachers  and  teachers  of  special  subjects,  such  as  nature 
study,  manual  training,  etc.,  are  counted  as  elementary  school 
teachers. 

Explanation  of  Table  11  j 

The  first  column  gives  the  average  total  number  of  pupils 
enrolled  in  all  day  schools;  the  second,  the  number  enrolled  in 
elementary  schools,  including  kindergartens;  the  third,  the  num- 
ber enrolled  in  high  schools.  The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  columns 
give  total  amount  spent  for  all  day  school  teachers'  salaries,  the 
amount  spent  for  elementary  school  teachers'  salaries,  including 
the  salaries  of  kindergarten  and  special  teachers,  and  the  amount 
spent  for  high  school  teachers'  salaries,  respectively.  The  sev- 
enth and  eighth  columns  give  the  per  cent  of  the  total  number 
of  pupils  enrolled  who  are  enrolled  in  the  elementary  school,  and 
the  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  spent  for  teachers'  salaries  which 


344  Educational  Administration 

is  spent  for  the  salaries  of  elementary  school  teachers.  The  ninth 
and  tenth  columns  give  the  same  information  for  high  schools. 
The  eleventh  and  twelfth  columns  give  the  number  of  pupils 
enrolled  per  teacher  in  both  elementary  and  high  schools. 

The  proportion  of  the  total  expenditures,  or  of  the  amount 
spent  for  salaries,  which  is  spent  for  the  teachers  of  one  class  or 
the  other  has  Httle  significance,  except  as  we  are  able  to  compare 
it  with  the  proportion  of  the  total  number  of  pupils  which  are 
enrolled  in  each  class  of  school.  That  a  city  spends  i8%  of  the 
total  amount  spent  for  maintenance  and  operation  for  high 
school  teachers'  salaries,  means  one  thing  when  the  city  enrolls 
17%  of  its  total  number  of  pupils  in  high  schools,  and  quite 
another  thing  when  the  city  enrolls  8.5%  of  the  total  number  in 
high  schools. 

The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  elementary  schools  varies 
from  71%  to  96%  of  the  total  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  while 
the  money  spent  for  the  salaries  of  elementary  school  teachers 
varies  from  56%  to  91%  of  the  total  amount  spent  for  salaries  of 
day  school  teachers.  The  median  for  elementary  teachers'  sal- 
aries is  78.8%  of  the  total  amount  spent  for  salaries,  while  the 
median  for  the  enrollment  in  elementary  schools  is  90.1%  of  the 
total  enrollment  in  day  schools. 

For  high  schools  the  variabiHty  for  the  proportion  of  total 
enrollment  has  a  range  of  from  4%  to  29%,  while  the  high  school 
teachers  receive  from  9%  to  44%  of  the  money  devoted  to 
teachers'  salaries.  The  median  for  high  school  teachers  is  21.2% 
of  the  total  amount  spent  for  salaries,  while  the  median  for  the 
enrollment  in  high  schools  is  9.9%  of  the  total  enrollment  in  day 
schools.  In  seventeen  out  of  twenty-nine  cases,  the  proportion 
of  the  total  amount  spent  for  salaries  which  is  spent  for  high 
school  teachers'  salaries  is  two,  three  or  even  four  times  the  pro- 
portion which  the  high  school  enrollment  is  of  the  total  enroll- 


City  School  Expenditures  345 

merit.  Of  the  remaining  twelve  cases,  seven  show  a  proportionate 
expenditure  for  high  school  teachers'  salaries  almost  double  the 
high  school's  proportion  of  the  total  number  of  pupils. 

The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  per  teacher  in  the  elementary 
schools  varies  from  35  to  54,  while  in  the  high  schools  the  number 
varies  from  17  to  43.  The  median  number  of  pupils  per  teacher 
is  44  for  the  elementary  schools,  and  27  for  the  high  schools.  In 
general,  the  enrollment  per  teacher  for  the  elementary  schools 
is  about  one  and  one-half  times  the  enrollment  per  teacher  in  the 
high  schools. 

If  we  may  take  the  amount  spent  for  salaries  as  an  index  of  the 
relative  cost  of  high  and  elementary  school  education,  we  must 
conclude  from  the  data  given  above  that  secondary  education 
costs  two,  three,  or  even  four  times  as  much  per  pupil  as  elemen- 
tary education.  What  we  would  like  to  have  is  the  expenditures 
for  high  schools  separate  from  those  for  elementary  schools  in 
order  to  be  entirely  certain  of  the  relative  cost  of  elementary  and 
secondary  education.  I  believe,  however,  that  the  item  of 
salaries  is  a  good  index,  first,  because  the  item  of  salaries  forms 
from  60%  to  80%  of  the  entire  budget;  and,  second,  because 
other  expenditures  for  books,  supplies,  and  apparatus  are  enough 
larger,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  in  the 
high  school  to  offset  an  expenditure  of  the  same  amount  per  pupil 
for  janitors'  salaries,  fuel,  repairs,  etc. 


346 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   113 


>. 

0       k" 

IW 

1- 

in"" 

g  ,  0 
art  S 

'^•rtH 

(/2  u 

.SPrt  0 

3 

5  c  u 

00    J" 

0  Ml 

J3   "2 

*-.  3. 

giSo 

■2  "^ 

gll^ 

1^ 

11^ 

^  a 
1^ 

3S£ 

0  S''i2"" 

3  °  ■<«- 
g-g.H 

H 

;?: 

;^: 

H 

<"^ 

5 

4,286 

3,796 

490 

86,850 

65,350 

21,500 

6 

2,200 

1,911 

289 

31,128 

22,396 

8,732 

8 

2,436 

2,139 

297 

39,570 

30,845 

8,725 

13 

4,049 

3,765 

284 

60,395 

51,545 

8,850 

14 

1,738 

1,598 

140 

25,932 

28,957 

4,975 

15 

5,587 

5.038 

549 

75,531 

62,137 

13,394 

16 

1,220 

1,136 

84 

17,285 

13,432 

3,853 

20 

2,969 

2,662 

307 

42,436 

33,184 

9,252 

27 

2,167 

1,831 

336 

22,595 

16,413 

6,182 

28 

2,231 

2,143 

88 

28,583 

23,927 

4,656 

30 

3,747 

3,428 

319 

76,185 

59,628 

16,557 

31 

3,651 

3,433 

218 

,    43,992 

36,193 

7,799 

32 

2,999 

2,728 

271 

41,268 

35,268 

6,000 

34 

1,867 

1,684 

183 

30,843 

24,285 

6,558 

35 

5,162 

4,407 

755 

82,351 

66,891 

15,460 

36 

1,633 

1,350 

283 

24,439 

18,102 

6,337 

37 

3,25s 

2,886 

369 

30,491 

23,262 

7,229 

39 

1,981 

1,641 

340 

30,652 

22,362 

8,290 

40 

2,138 

1,510 

628 

30,963 

17,402 

13,561 

41 

4,533 

4,022 

511 

54,086 

42,803 

11,283 

42 

4,214 

3,798 

416 

48,937 

37,687 

11,250 

43 

3,094 

2,636 

458 

46,301 

36,244 

10,057 

45 

4,142 

3,867 

275 

60,237 

48,537 

11,700 

48 

1,161 

1,098 

63 

12,099 

10,424 

1,675 

52 

4,978 

4,680 

298 

58,192 

50,555 

7,637 

54 

1,949 

1,803 

146 

38,300 

31,650 

6,650 

55 

2,440 

2,201 

239 

21,762 

18,200 

3.562 

56 

2,126 

2,029 

97 

39,725 

36,175 

3,550 

57 

3,072 

2,692 

380 

74,495 

55,645 

18,850 

City  School  Expenditures 


347 


TABLE  113  (Continued) 


3j2-S|"o 

1 

3jS.S!si2 

3s  -  -^ 

<n  V 

J3 
jn  to 

u 
a 

s 

2: 

«j  c  rt  g.  .2 
■S  2.53  g  0,  i2 

5  II? « ^  s 

illuii 

3  u.  5 

0538 

5 

88.5 

75-2 

"5 

24.8 

43 

22 

6 

86.9 

72.0 

131 

28.0 

50 

25 

.    8 

87.7 

77-9 

12.3 

22.1 

47 

27 

13 

93- 

853 

7- 

14.7 

38 

30 

14 

91.8 

80.9 

8.2 

19. 1 

35 

23 

IS 

90.1 

82.3 

9.9 

17.7 

48 

31 

16 

93- 1 

77.6 

6.9 

22.3 

35 

17 

20 

89.6 

78.3 

10.4 

21.7 

49 

28- 

27 

84.4 

72.6 

15.6 

27.4 

47 

31 

28 

96.1 

83.7 

3-9 

16.3 

44 

18 

30 

91.4 

78.2 

8.6 

21.8 

38 

26 

31 

94.1 

82.2 

5-9 

17.8 

38 

24 

32 

90.9 

85-4 

9.1 

14.6 

47 

36 

34 

90.1 

78.8 

9.9 

21.2 

39 

23 

35 

85.4 

81.2 

14.6 

18.8 

38 

34 

36 

82.8 

74.2 

17.2 

25.8 

42 

27 

37 

88.5 

76.3 

ii-S 

237 

54 

34 

39 

82.9 

72.8 

17.1 

27.2 

37 

30 

40 

70.6 

56.2 

29.4 

43-8 

49 

34 

41 

88.8 

79.1 

II. 2 

20.9 

47 

30 

42 

90.2 

77.0 

9.8 

23.0 

56 

29 

43 

85.3 

78.3 

14.7 

21.7 

40 

36 

45 

93-4 

80.6 

6.6 

19.4 

43 

19 

48 

94-7 

86.1 

S-3 

13-9 

48 

21 

52 

94.0 

86.9 

6. 

131 

50 

35 

54 

92.5 

82.6 

7-S 

174 

35 

20 

55 

90.2 

83.6 

9.8 

16.4 

54 

43 

56 

95-4 

91. 1 

4.6 

8.9 

46 

24 

57 

87.7 

74-7 

12.3 

25-3 

38 

22 

348  Educational  Administration 


CONCLUSION 


This  section  will  give  a  brief  general  summary  of  the  results 
which  have  already  been  obtained,  and  some  practical  suggestions 
which  grow  out  of  these  facts.  First,  with  regard  to  variabiHty, 
it  will  be  remembered  that  the  cost  per  pupil  for  the  main- 
tenance and  operation  of  schools  in  the  cities  considered  varies 
from  $9  to  $55.  That  this  variation  in  the  total  cost  per  pupil 
is  not  due  entirely  to  the  relative  wealth  or  poverty  of  the  differ- 
ent communities  is  shown  conclusively  when  we  know  that  the 
cost  of  schools  in  cities  in  the  United  States  varies  from  6%  to 
46%  of  the  total  city  expenditure.  An  equally  striking  varia- 
bility is  found  in  the  cost  per  pupil  for  each  of  the  principal  items 
of  expense.  Even  when  cities  spending  about  the  same  amount 
per  pupil  are  considered,  it  is  found  that  the  distribution  of  the 
money  among  the  several  items  seems  not  to  show  anything 
like  the  degree  of  uniformity  which  might  be  expected.  It  is 
found  that  the  percentage  of  the  total  cost  of  maintenance 
and  operation  which  is  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision  varies 
from  44%  to  82%;  and  what  possibly  seems  more  astonishing  is 
the  fact  that  the  city  spending  the  smallest  proportion  for  teach- 
ing and  supervision,  spends  the  smallest  total  amount  per  pupil. 
Janitors'  salaries  amount  to  from  3%  to  9%  of  the  budget;  one 
city  spends  3%  of  its  money  for  fuel  and  another  spends  1 2%  for 
the  same  purpose;  text-books  and  suppHes  cost  from  1%  to  13% 
of  the  total  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation. 

Fuel'  costs  three  times  as  much  per  pupil  in  one  city  as  in 
another.  The  expenditure  per  pupil  for  the  salaries  of  high  school 
teachers  varies  from  one  and  one  half  to  four  times  the  cost  per 
pupil  for  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools. 

In  our  consideration  of  relationships  we  found  that  an  expen- 
sive school  system  is  one  that  spends  more  than  the  usual  amount 
for  all  of  the  principal  items  of  expense.    A  large  positive  relation- 


City  School  Expenditures  349 

ship  exists  between  the  proportion  spent  for  supervision  and  the 
proportion  spent  for  text-books  and  supplies.  A  lack  of  relation- 
ship between  the  total  cost  per  pupil  and  the  proportion  which 
is  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision  seems  to  indicate  that 
additional  expenditures  may  not  mean,  as  they  should,  a  greater 
proportion  for  those  items  which  count  most  for  the  efficiency  of 
the  schools. 

These  and  the  many  other  facts  which  are  given  above  con- 
cerning the  variability  and  interrelation  of  the  principal  items 
of  expense  for  schools,  prove  conclusively  that  the  problem  of 
the  business  administration  of  city  school  systems  is  not  only  a 
real  and  vital  one,  but  also  that  we  may  expect  that  the  schools 
will  increase  in  efficiency  when  the  money  devoted  to  public 
education  is  distributed  among  the  various  items  in  the  best 
possible  way.  As  has  been  stated,  our  final  test  can  only  be 
found  by  testing  the  pupils  in  the  schools  in  order  to  rate  different 
systems  for  efficiency,  and  then  we  must  conclude  that  those 
cities  which  get  the  best  results  for  a  given  exp)enditure  per  pupil 
are  the  cities  which  properly  distribute  their  money.  However, 
before  any  such  comparison  among  the  various  cities  can  be 
made,  we  must  have  more  detailed  information  with  regard  to 
the  way  in  which  the  money  is  used.  If  we  may  not  ask  city 
superintendents  or  boards  of  education  to  report  their  expend- 
itures according  to  a  certain  fixed  form,  it  does  seem  that  we 
might  insist  that  their  reports  tell  us  for  just  what  purposes  the 
money  is  spent.  A  report  which  gave  the  various  items  of  ex- 
pense in  detail  would  enable  any  one  to  compare  cities  according 
to  whatever  classification  seemed  best.  Nor  would  such  reports 
be  without  their  value  to  the  persons  making  them.  If  the  admin- 
istrator of  schools  is  to  secure  additional  money,  either  for  pur- 
poses for  which  money  is  already  used,  or  for  any  new  field  of 
activity,  he  can  have  no  better  argument  than  to  be  able  to  show 
just  what  results  are  obtained  in  his  own  and  other  cities  from  a 


350  Educational  Administration 

given  expenditure.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  superintendent 
wishes  to  introduce  manual  training  or  domestic  science;  he  will 
be  met  immediately  by  the  statement  that  these  "fads"  are 
expensive  and  not  at  all  necessary  as  a  part  of  public  education. 
Now,  if  it  were  possible  for  him  to  show  from  the  reports  of  other 
cities  that  the  additional  expenditure  was  comparatively  small, 
and  that  results  obtained  in  the  way  of  retaining  pupils  in  school 
were  considerable,  he  could  make  an  argument  which  would 
have  some  weight. 

If  the  greatest  economy  is  to  be  had,  it  is  essential  that  the 
accounting  should  show  just  how  much  money  is  spent  for  each 
item,  and,  within  a  system  itself,  how  various  schools  compare. 
It  should  be  possible  for  the  administrative  officer  to  tell  just 
what  the  cost  per  pupil  is  for  each  school  within  the  system,  and 
to  compare  the  relative  cost  with  the  relative  efficiency  as  found 
by  testing  the  pupils  of  each  school.  No  great  corporation  would 
to-day  continue  to  spend  money  for  purposes  for  which  no  results 
could  be  shown,  and  no  school  system  should  so  report  its  expen- 
ditures that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  how  much  the  educational 
policies  cost  which  it  advocates  and  carries  out. 

It  seems  hardly  right  to  expect  that  a  superintendent  whose 
time  is  already  overcrowded,  and  who  has  as  his  assistant  a  clerk 
worth  $500  a  year,  should  be  asked  or  expected  to  originate  or 
carry  out  any  such  policy  of  accounting  as  has  been  suggested 
above.  But  when  we  recall  again  the  great  variability  which  is 
found  for  those  items  of  expense  which  might  be  expected  to  be 
fairly  constant,  we  feel  that  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  suggest  that 
the  salary  of  a  competent  business  agent  or  director  might  be  paid 
out  of  the  savings  which  would  be  made  by  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  the  business  affairs  of  the  schools,  and  that  the  efficiency 
of  the  schools  might  be  increased  as  the  result  of  the  proper  dis- 
tribution of  the  money  spent.  When  the  best  judgment  is  used 
in  the  purchase  and  use  of  supplies  and  equipment  as  well  as  in 


City  School  Expenditures  351 

the  selection  of  teachers  and  supervisors  of  instruction,  when  the 
money  which  is  spent  for  schools  is  properly  distributed  among 
the  various  items  of  the  budget,  when  expenditures  are  shown  in 
reports  in  connection  with  the  results  obtained,  then  our  schools 
will  be  found  to  have  improved  in  eflSciency,  and  then  they  will 
be  able  to  command  the  respect  and  increased  support  of  the 
community. 


§  23-  Expenditures  for  Schools  in   Relation  to  Other 
Municipal  Expenditures 

The  fiscal  problem  in  education  involves  not  only  a  considera- 
tion of  the  proper  administration  of  the  funds  set  aside  for  schools, 
but  also  the  possible  increase  in  revenue  devoted  to  education. 
The  greater  demand  made  upon  our  public  schools,  due  to  the 
development  of  superior  facilities  for  the  type  of  education  which 
has  long  been  thought  necessary  and  to  the  very  great  increase 
in  the  number  and  kind  of  activities  undertaken  by  our  schools, 
has  led  everywhere  to  an  increase  in  school  expenditures.  The 
study  of  the  fiscal  problem  when  viewed  merely  from  the  stand- 
point of  expenditure  may  be  summed  up  in  an  accurate  and 
detailed  statement  of  the  results  secured  for  the  money  spent. 
From  the  standpoint  of  increasing  school  revenue  the  problems 
must  be  stated  in  terms  of  school  needs  in  relation  to  amount  of 
increase  in  revenue  desired. 

If  the  resources  of  our  society  were  unlimited  the  problem  of 
securing  adequate  support  for  education  would  be  very  simple. 
A  need  once  recognized  would  be  met  by  a  grant  of  sufficient 
funds.  As  the  situation  actually  is  the  abiHty  of  any  community 
to  satisfy  the  demand  for  increased  support  for  schools  must  be 
judged  in  terms  of  the  whole  community  fiscal  problem.  Many 
American  communities  are  poor,  some  are,  for  various  reasons, 
almost  bankrupt.  The  ability  to  raise  money  is  limited.  Of  the 
total  amount  of  revenue  collected  only  a  part  can  be  spent  for 
schools.  It  is  quite  as  important  for  a  community  to  maintain 
a  police  force  and  a  fire  department  as  it  is  to  have  schools. 
Money  spent  for  paving,  sewage  systems,  hospitals,  proper  hand- 
ling of  contagious  disease,  inspection  of  meat  and  milk  and  the 
like,  cannot  advantageously  be  withdrawn  for  any  other  use. 

The  expedient  of  rendering  the  schools  independent  of  the 
general  municipal  government  by  creating  a  board  with  power  to 
levy  and  collect  taxes  as  well  as  to  manage  the  schools,  seems  to 

352 


Expenditures  for  Schools  in  Relation  to  Others      353 

the  writer  to  be  open  to  serious  criticism.  It  is  true  that  under 
this  form  of  control  schools  may  receive,  for  a  time  at  least,  more 
money  than  they  could  hope  for  from  the  general  administration. 
It  has  often  been  contended  that  our  schools  have  almost  invar- 
iably been  administered  honestly.  Granting  both  of  these  argu- 
ments, the  fact  remains  that  the  schools  represent  only  one  type 
of  community  activity  and  ought  not  to  draw  from  the  resources 
of  the  community  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cripple  other  agencies 
of  vital  importance  to  the  welfare  of  the  group.  Then,  too,  there 
is  an  undoubted  value  in  placing  those  who  administer  schools 
in  a  position  in  which  they  are  called  upon  to  justify  the  use  of 
money  already  granted  and  to  show  clearly  the  needs  which  lie 
back  of  the  demand  for  increased  support.  We  may  not  hope 
for  the  highest  type  of  efficiency  from  any  man  or  group  of  men 
who  lack  the  stimulus  which  is  found  in  a  close  and  continual 
scrutiny  of  their  public  acts.  School  boards  and  school  superin- 
tendents are  not  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

The  only  adequate  study  of  city  expenditures,  with  special 
reference  to  the  money  spent  for  schools,  is  Professor  E.  C. 
Elliott's  "Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Education."  The  remainder 
of  this  section  will  consist  mainly  of  tables  of  results  from  this 
investigation.  Professor  Elliott's  data  were  secured  from  the 
bulletins,  numbers  36  and  42,  of  the  Department  of  Labor  issued 
in  September  1901  and  1902  and  from  bulletin  20,  of  the  Bureau 
of  the  Census  issued  in  1905.  The  classification  used  by  the 
Department  of  Labor  is  modified  and  improved  in  the  later 
publication  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  but  not  so  greatly  as  to 
invalidate  comparisons  among  the  results  secured  from  the  two 
sets  of  data.  The  following  parts  of  tables  from  Professor 
Elliott's  study  give  the  two  classifications  and  at  the  same  time 
show  the  data  derived  from  the  original  data  expressed  as  per- 
centages of  the  total  amount  expended  instead  of  amount  in 
dollars  as  found  in  the  original  tables. 


TABLE 
Showintg  Percentages  of  Total  Amount  Expended  for  Maintenance  and  Operation 

All  Cities  in  the  United  States 


City 


I  New  York,  N.  Y 

3  Chicago,  III 

3  Philadelphia,  Pa 

4'St.  Louis,  Mo 

5! Boston,  Mass 

6  Baltimore,  Md 

7  Cleveland,  Ohio 

8, Buffalo,  N.  Y 

9  San  Francisco,  Cal.. . 

10;  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  .  .  . 

II  Pittsburg,  Pa 

12, New  Orleans,  La.  .  .  . 

13 'Detroit,  Mich 

14, Milwaukee,  Wis 

15  j  Washington,  D.  C.  . 

16  Newark,  N.  J 

I7|jersey  City,  N.  J..  .  . 

18 1  Louisville,  Ky.. . .  . .  . 

19 'Minneapolis,  Minn.  . 

30  Providence,  R.  L  . . . 

31  Indianapolis,  Ind..  .  . 

33  Kansas  City,  Mo..  .  . 
33 1  St.  Paul,  Minn 

34  Rochester,  N.  Y 

35  Denver,  Col 

26  Toledo,  Ohio 

37  .\llegheny.  Pa 

28  Columbus,  Ohio  .  .  .  . 

29  Worcester,  Mass.  .  .  . 

30  Syracuse,  N.  Y 

31  New  Haven,  Conn.  .. 

32  Paterson,  N.  J 

33  Fall  River,  Mass.  .  . . 

34  St.  Joseph,  Mo 

35  Omaha,  Neb 

36  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  .  .  . 

37  Memphis,  Tenn 

38  Scranton.  Pa 

39;Lowell,  Mass 

40[Albany,  N.  Y 

4i!Cambridge,  Mass..  . . 

42  Portland,  Ore 

43  Atlanta,  Ga 

44 'Grand  Rapids,  Mich 
45 1  Dayton,  Ohio 

46  Richmond,  Va 

47  Nashville,  Tenn 

48  Seattle,  Wash 

49  Hartford,  Conn 

50  Reading,  Pa 

51  (Wilmington,  Del.  . .  . 
52iCamden   N.  J 

53  [Trenton,  N.  J 

54  Bridgeport.  Conn..  . . 

55  Lynn,  Mass 

56  Oakland,  Cal 

57 1  Lawrence.  Mass 

58  New  Bedford,  Mass.. 

59  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  . . 

60  Springfield,  Mass..  .  . 

61  Somerville,  Mass.  . . . 

62  Troy,  N.  J 

63  Hoboken,  N.  J 

64  Evansville,  Ind 

65  Manchester,  N.  H..  . 
66Utica,  NY 

67  Peoria,  111 

68  Charleston,  S.  C 


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u  . 

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0 

0 

Pk 

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10. IS 

.701 

19-30 

1.460 

14.30 

2.640 

17.80 

1.270 

8.66 

6.660 

II  .20 

2.770 

8.64 

1 .910 

13  10 

.406 

14.80 

1.980 

9.88 

1.840 

8.07 

S.60 

1.330 

16.00 

.341 

9-32 

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6.790 

8. 55 

9-94 

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7.36 

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9.02 

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II  .40 

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5-71 

4-94 

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13.70 

7-94 

.968 

7.84 

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8.38 

■  337 

10.60 

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5-84 

.733 

9.24 

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12.40 

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13  40 

.611 

11.20 

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8.27 

1 .070 

6.14 

12.80 

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7-33 

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6.28 

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8.01 
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5.88 

5. 28 

8.96 

11.20 

9.41 

10.10 

11.90 

8.2s 

6.68 

8.35 

7.57 

6.67 


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6.36 
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9.14 
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7-39 
8.69 
9.92 
417 
7.40 

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10.20 
7  .94 
9.06 
6.51 
571 

10.  20 
9.81 
9.98 
7.18 

II  .40 
6.68 
7.22 
9.71 
7.96 
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6.60 
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10.70 
9.81 
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2.60 

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3.82 

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1.310 

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7-79 

1430 

■30 

4. 950 

7.83 

.769 

S.66 

1. 000 

.34 

.498 

4.39 

■  9,^3 

3.13 

1.340 

10.60 

•  70s 

2.36 

.499 

.17 

1.290 

3.33 

1 .200 

2-57 

1 .140 

2.000 

11.50 

14.9 

31.8 

17. 1 
16.8 
154 
15.4 

23 -7 
19.1 
20.9 
173 
13.5 
10.4 
23.9 
21.1 
21 .7 
18.3 
II. o 

17.9 
25.6 
17.9 
33.2 
26.  s 
19.0 
16.1 
37.2 
25  9 
17.3 
22. s 

21 .2 
21.8 
26.6 

25-2 

18.1 

28.4 

25 

32 


g  d  u 

3    S 


24  ■ 


.6 
■  7 
■9 
.6 
7 

22. s 
21.4 
22.9 
14. S 
28.1 
32.7 
10.6 
20.7 
18.9 
24.2 
28.2 
25.9 
24.7 
21 .1 
23.4 
1S.4 
37-6 

21  .2 
20.2 
40.7 
26.7 
25.0 
18.7 
24.0 
31.9 
18.7 
24.3 
314 
12.3 


.555 

.894 
1.33 

.453 
1.61 

.034 

1.6s 
1.6s 

.754 
1.13 
I  03 

•  173 
1.79 
1 .60 

.140 

•  713 
.763 

1-43 

.331 
2.82 
.963 
.61S 
.077 
1.27 

.732 
1.15 

.522 
1.58 
1.93 
113 
1.56 
1 .01 
1 .22 
1.29 
1.39 

.698 
1.42 
i.os 
.416 
.700 


.694 
1.02 
.411 
.310 
1.06 
.827 
.528 
1.04 
•  132 
.573 
1.73 
1-77 
1.82 
1.48 
1.42 
1.14 
2.40 
1.22 


los 

•  839 
1.04 
1.82 

.081 


*«    ,n 

gg 

i2 

in-a 

^ 

f2o 

c« 

1.72 

.648 

3^30 

2.00 

2.63 

-432 

1.29 

L.I  2 

2.50 

1.88 

3.29 

.418 

.786 

.694 

3.21 

.197 

2.66 

.824 

.611 

.696 

2.88 

1.11 

.20s 

2.89 

1. 41 

1.86 

1.40 

1.16 

1.39 

.0937 

1.27 

.142 

.448 

1.70 

.497 

2.51 

1.26 

1.19 

1.74 

4.48 

4.77 

2.39 

.424 

2.40 

.714 

.787 

.0997 

3.64 

.831 

1.17 

.872 

1.37 

•  754 

.535 

.658 

1.04 

11. S 

1. 91 

1. 41 

.798 

2.44 

•  9S4 

.186 

1.14 

•  82s 

1 .29 

1.93 

4.08 

.306 

.229 

.641 

1.03 

.959 

1.16 

2.56 

.124 

.928 

4.30 

.807 

.366 

1.38 

.S86 

2.16 

.739 

•  245 

.2s8 

3^o2 

.152 

.124 

•  SOI 

.305 

1^83 

.591 

1^77 

4.67 

2.02 

.526 

•  159 

.136 

1^57 

.942 

2.68 

.863 

.511 

.888 

1.33 

.673 

.716 

.953 

1.89 

.788 

2.10 

1.99 

1.98 

.409 

.934 

.839 

.269 

.466 

.588 

.743 

.196 

•  404 

.866 

•  59 

.437 

.706 

1-95 

•  942 

,   1   OS 

1^53 

(4)  Less  than  .01. 


1  Percentages  obtained  from  data  published  in  Bulletin  36  of 
354 


Devoted  to  Each  of  the  Municipal  Departments  for  the  Fiscal  Year  1900 1 
Above  3o/xx>  Population 


CO 

6^ 

Oa5 

§ 

e 

i 

1 

1 

0 

.a 

1^ 

2  M 

P 

•a 
If 

6 

n 

E 
0 

4.10 

1.84 

1.04 

13.12 

3-22 

•  656 

•  360 

.067 

.048 

33  ^69 

I 

3.0J 

I  so 

2.25 

6.73 

6.36 

I  54 

.101 

1.030 

.017 

•054 

7.27 

3 

1.63 

3-S9 

2.96 

10.90 

779 

.024 

5.  210 

.023 

•  495 

19  30 

3 

332 

3-S7 

2.15 

8.66 

6.70 

.660 

■379 

073 

14  50 

4 

2.67 

7.32 

3.16 

1 1. 10 

6.47 

2.040 

.142 

-332 

•572 

12.40 

5 

2.67 

2.19 

2.22 

20.10 

3.62 

.056 

.286 

.069 

.054 

19  50 

6 

1.20 

1.99 

I  50 

14.40 

S.89 

2.250 

•450 

.648 

1510 

7 

2.98 

4.02 

1.86 

10.90 

5.86 

•  756 

.179 

.230 

.001 

.01 

15^40 

8 

2.70 

313 

•  25 

.096 

32^50 

9 

3-29 

1.68 

.42 

28.90 

7^8S 

.080 

•  445 

.221 

7^83 

10 

2.47 

4- 25 

1.40 

12.40 

465 

.382 

•757 

.288 

30^80 

II 

2.94 

.26 

2.49 

14.70 

48.20 

la 

4.69 

1 1.  SO 

1.79 

8.64 

3.60 

334 

.589 

.070 

1. 71 

13 

516 

3.80 

4.80 

9.22 

4.46 

.078 

1.720 

•  32s 

15.80 

14 

3.48 

6.42 

1. 14 

8.43 

332 

.651 

•134 

.020 

14.10 

If 

2-54 

1.38 

8.37 

6.96 

■415 

.121 

35.70 

16 

1.47 

2.99 

23  20 

8.96 

•  073 

30.70 

'2 

3.60 

5-59 

17.60 

4.91 

•  279 

17.90 

18 

5.90 

2.03 

12.90 

3-74 

.36s 

16.30 

19 

1-73 

5-57 

.698 

20.50 

2.64 

•  636 

.626 

17.90 

30 

S.36 

1-54 

2-53 

7.72 

.18 

•  301 

•  632 

11.80 

ai 

4.41 

1  IS 

.94 

12.00 

8.48 

•  238 

.088 

11.50 

aa 

4  34 

3.36 

.88 

22.50 

347 

2.730 

12.80 

33 

3.10  1  1.89 

2.69 

21.80 

2.58 

•  595 

1. 120 

24.20 

34 

418    .952 

•52 

7.60 

•  017 

.382 

17.40 

*§ 

2.53 

4.79 

.8i 

21.10 

4.81 

1.24 

1.380 

•513 

.626 

11.30 

36 

2.73 

553 

1.59 

14.00 

12.50 

4.21 

.170 

.321 

20.70 

'Z 

3g6 

.82 

.81 

21.  lO 

6.91 

.020 

•451 

18.50 

28 

2.90 

8.72 

.70 

1490 

2.56 

.020 

11. 50 

39 

SOI 

3.66 

4  05 

15  20 

552 

1.610 

•275 

.077 

.283 

8.63 

30 

6.45 

3.89 

-39 

10.50 

.772 

12.40 

31 

4.60 

509 

2.78 

12.30 

12.50 

33 

2.54 

717 

2.01 

8.29 

9.66 

1.380 

18.30 

33 

2.46 

4.81 

1580 

$•58 

.206 

10.70 

34 

1.62 

2.52 

20.20 

.148 

24.90 

35 

6.49 

S-9I 

.82 

4.89 

19.40 

36 

3.06 

10.33 

18.60 

.766 

2.350 

.668 

10.60 

37 

1.8s 

2.06 

•43 

8.06 

.694 

12.30 

38 

2.3S 

2.21 

1. 41 

13.70 

6.38 

•  709 

8.09 

39 

2.49 

2.27 

•  03 

16.60 

9.23 

.377 

.118 

10.70 

40 

2.79 

7.06 

2.49 

14.70 

3.37 

2.360 

.826 

.061 

19.90 

41 

3.18 

1. 00 

.36 

27.00 

3.66 

2300 

43 

4.20 

14.50 

5. 87 

.145 

.837 

11.00 

43 

3.69 

.68 

•  44 

7.50 

8^93 

2.22 

■  154 

•  373 

I -950 

18.70 

44 

2.31 

2.61 

2.0s 

19.80 

4.46 

1.580 

.669 

7.02 

45 

2.81 

3.36 

1.62 

30.90 

314 

11.90 

.292 

.497 

.717 

7.60 

46 

1.62 

6.8i 

3.74 

20.60 

6.82 

.343 

7-17 

47 

.8S4 

2.0s 

.06 

20.30 

714 

.181 

•  03s 

30.60 

48 

4.72 

13.6 

1.87 

13.10 

4-59 

.835 

422 

.181 

2.61 

49 

2.26 

3.84 

2.83 

8.37 

8.32 

.157 

13  50  50 

2-35 

3-34 

4.18 

13 .  so 

9.27 

.038 

10.70  51 

1-57 

3-77 

1.09 

16.70 

9-49 

6.54  53 

2.43 

2. II 

1.46 

20.10 

7.46 

iS-io,  53 

348   6.19 

3.28 

9.12 

•575 

1300  54 

1.55   6.21 

2.61 

15.40 

4.68 

2.190 

19.60  5S 

6  94 

2.64 

339 

.429 

9-44  50 

2.38 

S.48 

1.37 

1300 

7.22 

•371 

1.300 

13-60  57 

1. 10 

S-Si 

2.24 

16.90 

445 

.624 

.168 

2.89 

.071 

11.90  58 

2.24 

1 .46 

459 

1950 

1.24 

.151 

16.90,  50 

3.43 

3.32 

1.80 

II  .10 

394 

22.20  60 

1.62 

6.09 

1.89 

6.29 

5-73 

.039 

31.20  61 

9.86 

.63 

4.55 

7.92 

8.6s 

.013 

.C41 

.040 

.096 

10.40]  6a 

1. 61 

.25 

.48 

8.49 

21.10 

•475 

.203 

10.00  63 

1.64 

1-32 

.62 

18.60 

7.14 

.III 

.077 

•  311 

11.40  64 

21S 

12.20 

2.68 

1310 

3.88 

1.980 

9 -.so  65 
29.10  60 

4.00 

1.72 

1.73 

3  15 

•  328 

.065 

2.62 

3-53 

.12 

8.89 

.021 

1.440 

17.20  67 

5  15 

3.84 

25.4 

.056 

10.80 

68 

The  Department  ol  Labor,  September,  1901. 


355 


TABLE 

Showing  Percentages  of  Total  Payments  for  General  and  Municipal  Service  Expenses 

Cities  Between  25,000 


Cities 


Schenectady,  N.  Y.. 
Youngstown,  Ohio.  . 

Holyoke,  Mass 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind..  . 

Akron,  Ohio 

Saginaw,  Mich 

Tacoma,  Wash 

Covington,  Ky 

Lancaster,  Pa 

Dallas,  Tex 

Lincoln,  Nebr 

Brockton,  Mass..  .  . 

Pawtucket,  R.  1 

Birmingham,  Ala..  . 
Little  Rock,  Ark..  .  . 

Spokane,  Wash 

Altoona,  Pa 

Augusta,  Ga 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.. 

Mobile.  Ala 

South  Bend.  Ind..  .  . 
Wheeling,  W.  Va..  . 
Springfield,  Ohio. . . 

Johnstown,  Pa 

Haverhill,  Mass..  .  . 

Topeka.  Kan 

Terre  Haute,  Ind..  . 

AUentown,  Pa 

McKeesport,  Pa..  .  . 
Dubuque,  Iowa. . . . 

Butte,  Mont 

Davenport,  Iowa.  .  . 

Quincy,  111 

Salem,  Mass 

Elmira,  N.  Y 

Maiden,  Mass 

Bayonne,  N.  J 

Superior,  Wis 

York,  Pa 

Newton,  Mass 

East  St.  Louis,  111.. . 

Springfield,  111 

Chester,  Pa 

Chelsea,  Mass 

f  itchburg,  Mass..  .  . 
Knoxville,  Tenn..  .  . 

Rockford,  111 

Sioux  City,  Iowa.  .  . 
Montgomery,  Ala..  . 

Taunton,  Mass 

Newcastle,  Pa 

Passaic,  N.  J 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J.. 

Canton,  Ohio 

Jacksonville.  Fla..  . . 

Galveston,  Tex 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

Racine,  Wis 

South  Omaha,  Neb.. 

Joplin,  Mo 

Joliet,  111 


OE 


11-54 
8.21 

10.32 
6.83 
6.64 
9.24 
6-45 

11.28 
7-77 
7.66 
8.08 
9.37 
8.86 
7S2 

12.08 
7.96 
8.93 

8.69 

7-94 
8.17 
7.88 
6.10 
6.29 
752 
6.37 
7.09 
9.90 
8.43 
91S 
6.60 
5-93 
7.18 

11-35 
5-09 
9-46 

1.3-53 
6 -.53 
7.67 
8.82 
8.55 
9.24 
5-78 
6-37 
8.10 
5-32 
8.08 
6.05 
6.90 
8.09 
8.96 
7.96 
5-88 

8.54 
9-38 
6.24 
12. 16 
8.84 
6.92 


.67 
■  OS 
.13 
.28 
.13 
.67 

.     25 

t.17 
.49 

.35 

.07 
.69 
.90 
.42 


.12 
.65 


.37 
■  27 


.01 

■  SI 
.36 

■  37 


1-49 
■  41 


.26 
.33 
.42 
.19 
.08 
1-35 
.82 


.26 
1-15 
1 .03 


Q  5 
u  B 


CL< 


11. 87 

13.41 

7.18 

9-34 

8.0s 

8-54 

6.51 

10. 25 

1.08 

9.90 

4.69 

7-44 

8.10 

12.32 

16. 7S 

5.35 

5.36 

7.62 

9-49 

II  .22 
7-57 
8.8s 
6.98 
6.76 
8.84 
6.00 

II. 18 
8.20 

13-73 
7-34 
8.03 
8.62 
8.18 
S-94 

13  13 
6.88 
8.65 
7-73 
8.72 

11-75 
930 
7-92 
8.31 
8.07 
7.00 
6.80 

13.07 
8.71 
6.75 
6. II 

11.58 
8.25 

9-78 
7.01 
4-13 
7.12 
9.89 
10.29 


, 

cj 

n.^ 

<u  c: 

9, 

^s 

fe 

9.22 

9.92 

00 1 

10.66 

IS. 77 

09 

17.00 

7.27 

.,8.73 

9.10 

7.69 

11.02 

8.71 

32 

9.20 

6.81 

07 

13-45 

15.05 

10.27 

9.01 

6.79 

13.88 

13  47 

8.99 

5-89 

19 

9.98 

11-52 

19-43 

9.61 

10.30 

10.08 

12.48 

13^52 

ISS5 

79 

7^57 

12.90 

II 

5  68 

II 

2.99 

18^37 

9^85 

05 

5  14 

9-98 

IS -48 

7.10 

06 

6-94 

07 

8.26 

12.38 

12.07 

7-38 

8.10 

19 

6.22 

10. 75 

10 

8.29 

01 

14-25 

II. 19 

12.15 

10.52 

14.14 

9-S2 

13-85 

9-49 

From  bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Census  No.  20. 
356 


"S 

Devoted  to  Each  of  the  Itemized  Purposes. 
AND  so.ooo  Population 


Average  for  the  Fiscal  Years  1902  and  1903. 


3  5" 

0  u 
SB- 

1i 

•-'§ 

Public  High- 
ways 

Municipal 
Lighting 

3 

i 

1 

Libraries,  Mu-  1 
seums,  etc. 

.a  ■" 

3 

V 
B 
V 
0 

Corporate 
Interest 

s 

4.21 

4-83 

7-85 

10.6s 

21.70 

.63 

.24 

.34 

14.28 

•03 

I 

..55 

2.64 

3-86 

5-51 

6.86 

37  05 

1 .02 

.47 

8.13 

a 

7.82 

7-02 

3.90 

4-39 

26.66 

1.36 

1-23 

14-32 

3.36 

3 

.33 

•OS 

4.89 

8.28 

6.00 

33  02 

1.35 

3-06 

8.83 

4 

.06 

3  30 

7-79 

8.08 

1.48 

37.05 

1-73 

.60 

6. 89 

5 

3.23 

14-37 

3-93 

3.62 

36.05 

1.07 

-32 

12.05 

6 

•24 

6.63 

1.33 

28.50 

.98 

2.01 

1.92 

35.70 

I 

3^io 

4-44 

6.41 

6.11 

24.70 

1.20 

.03 

20.37 

.08 

•  .S4 

12.26 

13-95 

5-97 

32.32 

-13 

8.64 

•09 

9 

3.8s 

12.18 

5.50 

3.63 

22.80 

.81 

•  74 

.29 

20.8s 

10 

.10 

3.26 

4.06 

2.81 

40.80 

1.46 

.02 

24-77 

.08 

II 

8.69 

9.93 

.   453 

5.28 

25.06 

1.66 

.40 

1.24 

12.81 

2. 52 

la 

.28 

2.94 

9-25 

5-61 

4.27 

23-75 

1.33 

-47 

25.06 

2.61 

13 

.08 

1.04 

10.96 

3-60 

4.14 

13.72 

.04 

-63 

28.57 

-31 

14 

3.88 

9-03 

2.27 

1. 71 

30.30 

1.21 

3-48 

1.18 

IS 

1.71 

8.48 

1-74 

1.77 

29-65 

.48 

1  .60 

3.60 

25-83 

16 

.84 

8.28 

5-09 

2.9s 

38.40 

20.25 

.02 

17 

No 

data  for 

schools 

18 

•  30 

.13-33 

9-30 

9  12 

2.79 

31-90 

.001 

1-03 

6.73 

19 

No 

data  for 

schools 

20 

.31 

7.61 

7.35 

5-22 

32-30 

1.13 

2.15 

.48 

11.65 

-OS 

ai 

1.68 

4.88 

7-84 

6.12 

33-67 

1-71 

9-15 

-58 

aa 

■  OS 

2.81 

4.00 

12.43 

7.98 

31-90 

1.^8 

1.96 

10.23 

23 

.20 

4.71 

11-85 

6.44 

.001 

47-05 

-55 

6.87 

24 

•  05 

13-62 

10.40 

6.61 

2.31 

25-76 

2.24 

1.71 

.07 

12.50 

-  27 

as 

.S6 

9-86 

3.72 

1.60 

41.76 

•    1.22 

.61 

12.36 

26 

.16 

.SI 

2.69 

7-71 

5. 59 

39-35 

-73 

-49 

4-41 

27 

•  4.S 

.to 

8.19 

7.-45 

3-39 

42.88 

.c3 

12.60 

28 

•  30 

1 .20 

5-96 

6.23 

3-79 

35.43 

-94 

II  .22 

29 

8.09 

7.22 

4.56 

29.98 

1-33 

-45 

21 .02 

30 

.02 

.84 

8.71 

4.08 

3-55 

36.35 

2-79 

-05 

6.20 

-34 

31 

.18 

9.42 

8.16 

7-79 

37-10 

-95 

3-22 

4-51 

3a 

1. 06 

4-79 

7-15 

4.20 

29.56 

1-52 

2.69 

18.05 

33 

•  4S 

17-65 

5-86 

7-68 

3-66 

25.22 

2-33 

2.33 

6.97 

34 

.02 

3.g5 

9-95 

8.77 

2.37 

25-75 

-51 

1.72 

.02 

11.33 

35 

6.26 

9-33 

4-71 

3-63 

27.80 

2.29 

-42 

14.72 

II  .26 

.61 

36 

.87 

6-43 

7-34 

2.14 

32-77 

.87 

.40 

21 .07 

37 

1.79 

9.87 

3-65 

1.30 

36.45 

1.40 

3.42 

38 

.06 

.70 

9.19 

9  03 

7-59 

37   55 

.12 

•  79 

8.84 

39 

3-74 

10.74 

5.12 

4-55 

21.58 

I-5S 

-65 

9-43 

20.69 

.57 

40 

13.91 

4-04 

2.03 

33.75 

1.00 

-OS 

1565 

41 

.70 

I   13 

3.68 

7-29 

3-70 

28.11 

-93 

3-.U 

1-57 

12.85 

.01 

4a 

4-4S 

3.7s 

8.16 

3-44 

34.92 

.80 

13-75 

43 

•  33 

9.98 

7.02 

S-30 

4-37 

24.03 

.92 

-6s 

13.98 

9.60 

1..5I 

44 

11.79 

11-35 

6.82 

3-07 

26.28 

1-59 

.82 

-32 

13-35 

.02 

45 

3-sg 

6.39 

8-37 

3-52 

1975 

25-54 

46 

-73 

6.88 

9.10 

S-85 

40.70 

3-43 

.26 

7.68 

47 

.02 

8-36 

4.10 

6.62 

30.01 

.68 

.61 

26. 12  ■ 

48 

2.IO 

7.78 

S-41 

3-43 

12.87 

.30 

•  79 

.54.25 

2.43 

49 

■3S 

9. 52 

11.23 

3  09 

2.36 

25-75 

1.66 

•  71 

-30 

17.85 

3.13 

50 

5.Q7 

7. 95 

1-17 

3-67 

47.2s 

-04 

7.60 

SI 

■  IS 

3.86 

6.90 

6.82 

3.98 

37-77 

1-50 

1-77 

1-31 

9.76 

sa 

.22 

4.46 

5. 20 

6-74 

13.30 

16.76 

-54 

-33 

1   13 

15.16 

53 

•  32 

1.19 

3-53 

8.69 

6.92 

35-79 

•  90 

1-33 

.12 

14-79 

54 

No 

data  for 

schools 

55 

8.8s 

5.69 

1-77 

7.64 

20.2s 

•  31 

.30 

22.95 

56 

7.96 

8.42 

9-27 

4.54 

29  SO 

.62 

.04 

7-49 

3-22 

57 

4.17 

13.27 

S-28 

.21 

39  20 

3  03 

•  03 

8.00 

S8 

1.67 

4.62 

6.06 

.18 

40.17 

.08 

.17 

16.31 

59 

.74 

10.30 

.18 

44.50 

1. 71 

.OI 

1.60 

6.95 

60 

.So 

•79 

7.12 

7    47 

6.63 

38.42 

1. 91 

2.00 

6.17 

61 

357 


358 


Ediccational  Administration 


TABLE  lis 
Showing  Percentages  of  Total  Payments  for  General  and  Municipal  Service  Expenses 

Cities  Between  25,000 


Cities 


Chattanooga,  Tenn.. 
Woonsocket,  R.  I..  . 
Sacramento,  Cal..  . . 

La  Crosse,  Wis 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

Newport,  Ky 

Williarasport,  Pa..  .  . 

Pueblo,  Col 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa 
New  Britain,  Conn.. 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 

Lexington,  Ky 

Bay  City,  Mich 

Fort  Worth,  Te.t..  . . 

Easton,  Pa 

Gloucester.  Mass..  . , 
Jackson,  Mich , 


i. 

<-z 

0.^ 

rt 

"HS 

3 

OS 

= 

S  ° 

0 

g  s 

s 

OE 

(2 

7.83 

•  57 

12.19 

6.76 

.06 

8.24 

8.50 

.85 

8.90 

10.45 

6.91 

9.88 

■  SO 

552 

8.86 

.26 

8^53 

9.42 

4^97 

11.02 

.20 

8.00 

6.17 

•  77 

5  96 

5.46 

.82 

6.23 

6.4s 

1 .10 

6.68 

IS. 66 

1. 01 

12.03 

.02 

14.55 

■  72 

8.92 

7. IS 

•  30 

7.62 

7.40 

6.35 

11-37 

7.88 

.20 

9.03 

•  95 

8.16 

15.72 
8.35 
9.66 

13.39 

15.67 
5. 26 

12.48 
6.83 

16.73 

10.28 
8.97 
9. S3 

10.68 
8.78 
9.12 
9-53 

13.32 


eg 


3.02 
1.79 
1. 12 

.86 
1 .69 
2.56 
113 
2.29 

.12 

351 

2.27 

1.80 

•  24 

•S3 

.40 

1.83 

.91 


From  the  tables  given  above  are  derived  tables  of  frequency, 
measures  of  variability  and  of  relationship.  The  tables  which 
follow  are  marked  "L",  for  those  derived  from  the  data  of  the 
bulletins  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  and  "  C  ",  for  those  derived 
from  the  data  of  the  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census. 


TABLE   116   (L) 
Table  of  Measures  of  Variability  of  Percentile  Expenditures  for  M.^in- 

TENANCE  AND  OPERATION.     AlL  CiTIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AbOVE  30,000 

Population.    Fiscal  Years  1900  and  iqoi 


50  %  of  the  cases  lie  between        2  P.  E. 


Police  Department  (average) 6.93% 

Police  Department,  Courts,  Jails,  etc.  (1901)  7.43 

Fire  Department  (average) 6.72 

Municipal  Lighting  (1901) 4-39 

Libraries,  Museums,  etc.  (average) .66 

Health  Department  (average) .7 

Parks  (1901) .54 

Schools  (average) IQ  •  65 

Interest  on  Debt  (average) 8.84 


and 


9-82% 

1.89 

11.22 

3-79 

9.70 

2.98 

6.72 

2-33 

1.40 

•74 

1.6 

•9 

1.90 

1.36 

30.58 

10.97 

1915 

10.31 

Expenditures  for  Schools  in  Relation  to  Others      359 


(Continued) 

Devoted  to  Each  of  tbe  Iteuueo  Purposes.    Average  for  the  Fiscal  Years  1902  and  igoj. 

AND  50.000  Population 


3  >> 

".2 

no 
Kg. 

.1.5 

Ss 

J3 

3    . 
■5  E 

i 

g 

a 

!^3 

¥ 

Si 

3 

S>^ 

J3 

«2 

2  3 

2 
3 

0 

d'^ 

.18 

7-52 

3.90 

6.70 

S-19 

17.90 

.16 

2.03 

-17 

i6.8s 

6a 

5-75 

10.09 

5-91 

3.68 

20.57 

.24 

-09 

3-15 

22.27 

2-99 

t>^ 

.21 

.36 

12.60 

8.0s 

8.39 

35  30 

2.46 

1.20 

2-33 

64 

.06 

.06 

S.23 

S-79 

3.17 

39-27 

-55 

•  31 

6.59 

7.48 

6.S 

3.74 

12.93 

5.62 

1-56 

33 -S7 

2.26 

-78 

.06 

6.35 

66 

.09 

3.S4 

6.09 

6.94 

s-22 

26.04 

1-44 

-OS 

35  42 

67 

8.00 

6.24 

7-S6 

2.25 

35- 94 

.88 

10.80 

68 

.46 

11.50 

4.04 

i.6i 

33.27 

.So 

3.81 

-IS 

12.52 

3  44 

69 

.26 

.14 

S.07 

4.72 

2.27 

42.82 

1.50 

2.30 

II. 12 

70 

6.30 

6.19 

6.04 

38.26 

.94 

15.90 

.06 

71 

.01 

13-65 

6.53 

3-57 

38.4s 

1.90 

1.84 

•  4S 

8.16 

72 

8.64 

S.38 

7.82 

2.60 

22.30 

.49 

.06 

12.65 

.01 

7^ 

.29 

9.46 

4.80 

33-61 

i.os 

-57 

15.18 

74 

.16 

1. 01 

10.36 

1-03 

-76 

18.4s 

.89 

.3i 

37. IS 

541 

7.S 

10.36 

■39 

2.60 

SO. 87 

115 

-07 

II-2S 

76 

.i8 

13.38 

13-39 

3. So 

.91 

22.50 

.40 

13-78 

77 

•  03 

6.10 

12.8s 

6.52 

4-79 

27.60 

1.49 

-50 

i 

7.49 

.80 

78 

TABLE   117   (C) 

T.\BLE  OF  Measures  of  Vari.ability  of  Percentile  Payments  for  General 
AND  Municipal  SER\acE  Expenses.  Seventy-five  Cities  Between  25,000 
AND  50,000  Population.    Average  of  Fiscal  Years  1902  and  1903 


so  %  of  the  cases  lie  between        2  P.  E. 


General  Administration 

Police'Department 

Fire  Department 

Health  Department 

Charities  and  Corrections 

Public  Highways 

Street  Lighting 4.10 

Public  Sanitation 2.37 

Schools 25 .  75 

Libraries .73 

Public  Recreation .29 

Interest  on  Debt 8.13 


6.76%   and 
6.98 
8.71 
.87 

■79 
6.00 


9-24% 

2 

48 

9-49 

2 

51 

12.99 

4 

28 

1.98 

I 

II 

5-75 

4 

99 

10.30 

4 

30 

7.71 

3 

61 

5.22 

I 

«5 

37.10 

II 

35 

I-5S 

77 

1 .20 

91 

15-99 

5 

86 

360 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   118   (L) 

Table  of  Medians,  Average  DE\aATioNs,  Standard  Deviations,  and  Co- 
efficients OF  Variability.  Percentile  Expenditures  for  Maintenance 
AND  Operation.  Fiscal  Years  1900  and  1901.  All  Cities  in  United 
States  Above  30,000  Population 


Average       ! 

Standard 

Coefficient  of 

Deviation     1    Deviation 

Variability 

1900 

1901     1900 

1901  1  1900 

1901 

1900 

1901 

8.02 

8.28  2.17 

2.30  2.96 

2-59 

.767 

•799 

8.82 

8.88  2.49 

2.373-37 

3.20 

■839 

•795 

8.23 

8.46  I 

Q9 

1.802 

45 

2.28 

-693 

.619 

•93 

1.07 

.S6 

•79 

91 

1.40 

•.S«3 

.768 

23.60 

24.96 

6 

39 

6.308 

09 

7-50 

1.32 

1.06 

1 .02 

1.02 

48 

■44 

5« 

•5.5 

•483 

.442 

1.04 

1.04 

84 

.80  I 

16 

1.06 

.82 

.784 

5-51 

5-56 

I 

69 

1.65  2 

15 

2.10 

.719 

.696 

Police  Department 

Police    Department,    Courts, 

Jails,  etc 

Fire  Department 

Health  Department 

Schools 

Libraries,  etc 

Parks 

Street  Lighting 


TABLE    119    (C) 

Table  of  Medians,  Average  Deviations,  Standard  Devi.ations,  and  Co- 
efficients OF  Variability.  Average  Percentile  Payments  for  General 
and  Municipal  Service  Expenses.  Fiscal  Years  1902  and  1903.  Cities 
Between  25,000  and  50,000  Popul.ation 


General  Administration.  .  . 

Police  Department 

Fire  Department 

Health  Department 

Charities  and  Corrections 

Public  Highways 

Street  Lighting 

Public  Sanitation 

Schools 

Libraries 

Public  Recreation 

Interest  on  Debt 


KK     A' 

Standard 

Average 

Coefficient  of 

Deviation 

Deviation 

Variability 

8.08 

2.06 

1-54 

•54 

8.16 

2 

3« 

1-74 

609 

9.98 

3 

31 

2.58 

817 

1.40 

997 

•747 

biZ 

3.02 

4 

04 

2.98 

I 

71 

8.19 

2 

99 

2.52 

908 

6.43 

2 

35 

1.84 

725 

3-67 

2 

43 

1.78 

927 

32-30 

8 

34 

6.67 

I 

175 

1. 14 

727 

•56 

524 

.61 

92 

.642 

814 

12.50 

7 

79 

5-75 

I 

62 

Expenditures  J  or  Schools  in  Relation  to  Others      jbi 


TABLE   1 20  (L) 

Table  of  Pearson  Coefficients  of  Correlation.  Percentile  Expenditures 
FOR  Maintenance  and  Operation  for  the  Fiscal  Years  iqoo  and  1901. 
All  Cities  in  the  United  States  Above  30,000  Population 


Average  of 

1900  and 

1901 


Schools  with — 

Police  Department 

Police  Department,  Courts,  etc. 

Fire  Department 

Health 

Libraries  and  Museums 

Parks 

Street  Lighting 

Interest  on  Debt 

Other  Expenditures 


Street  Lighting  Department  with 
Police  Department 


Fire  Department  with 
Police  Department,  Courts,  etc. 


+  .0256 

—  0459 
+  -203 

—  .0243 

+  •279 
+  •031 

+  ■354 


—  .149 

—  15 
+  .065 

—  .205 
+  •315 
+  .065 


—  .069 
— .0679 
+  .0969 

—  0145 
+  •293 
+  .0156 

+  •344 

—  .482 

—  .288 


+  .0685 
+  •  139 


TABLE    121    (L) 
Table  of  Pearson  Coefficients  of  Correlation.    Per  Capita  Expenditures 
for  Maintenance   and  Operation.     All  Cities  in  the  United  States 
Above  30,000  Population.    Fiscal  Years  1900  and  1901 

Schools  with—  1900  1901 

Police  Department,  Courts,  etc +  .  232  +  .319 

Fire  Department +  .  444  +  .  389 

Street  Lighting. +333  +361 

Assessed  Valuation  of  Real  and  Personal  Property +  -45 

TABLE    122    (C) 

Table  of  Pearson  Coefficients  of  Correlations.     Average  Percentile 
P.ayments    for   General   and   Municipal   Service    Expenses.     Fiscal 
Years  1902  and  1903,  all  Cities  Between  25,000  and  50,000  Popul.ation 
Schools  with — 

General  Administration — .094 

Police  Department — .367 

Fire  Department +  .  088 

Health  Department — .187 

Charities  and  Corrections — .371 

Public  Highways — .  0004 

Street  Lighting + .  246 

Public  Sanitation — .  246 

Libraries  and  Museums +30 

Public  Recreation — .  054 

Interest  on  Debt — .541 


362 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   123   (L) 

Table  Showing  General  Group  Relationships.  Selection  of  Cities  Based 
ON  Percentile  Expenditures  for  Schools,  ant)  Made  From  all  Cities 
jN  United  States  Having  a  Population  of  30,000  and  Over.  Fiscal  Year 
1901 

Highest  ten  cities  in  percentile  school  expenditures: 


III 

87 

114 

81 

38 

S6 

"3 

75 

100 

119 


Median, 

Average, 


46 

8 

44 

16 

3« 

80 

42 

49 

41 

40 

40 

90 

39 

74 

3« 

80 

3« 

41 

37 

69 

41 

15 

41 

42 

8 

26 

7 

20 

2 

79 

5 
6 
8 
8 
10 

40 
14 
74 
46 
80 

4 

99 

II 

32 

7 

73 

7 

41 

< 

g 

a 

7-oS 

12.80 

3.21 

569 

9.02 

5.08 

7.48 

14-50 

9.81 

7-43 

8.17 

3.26 

4-95 

13-52 

12.22 

6.56 

6.43 

2.79 

7-77 

9.70 

7.62 

6.12 

7.61 

8.13 

4 

57 

10 

86 

7 

30 

8 

21 

7 

50 

10 

50 

8 

04 

9 

66 

14 

44 

6 

85 

8 

12 

8 

79 

ai-> 
Qi2 


8 

18 

9 

27 

7 

05 

10 

90 

8 

13 

9 

99 

5 
9 

t 

15 

54 

10 

18 

9 

85 

9 

51 

Lowest  ten  cities  in  percentile  school  expenditures: 


37 

15-40 

5-40 

14-43 

17.60 

10.00 

11.10 

43 

14.32 

6.48 

8.74 

12.31 

10.11 

12.15 

17 

13.90 

4.48 

6.76 

27.61 

6.70 

II. 71 

S 

13.07 

3.60 

11.65 

15-49 

5.87 

13-17 

99 

12.30 

4.18 

7.36 

28.91 

9.28 

14-34 

68 

12.76 

4-49 

6.64 

25.66 

7-94 

14.78 

12 

II. 12 

503 

3-69 

18.60 

6.20 

6.24 

133 

10.26 

5-54 

8.80 

30.85 

7.84 

11-45 

46 

9-83 

2.71 

8.02 

29.78 

7-34 

8.60 

80 

6.96 
12.53 

1.96 

11.80 

29-45 

552 

7.29 

Median, 

4.49 

7.06 

28.26 

7-59 

11.58 

Average, 

11.99 

4-39 

8.49 

23  63 

7.68 

11.08 

Expenditures  for  Schools  in  Relation  to  Others      363 


TABLE   124  (C) 

Table  Showing  General  Group  Relationships.  Selection  of  Cities  Based  on  Percentile 
Payments  for  Schools,  and  Made  from  Cities  in  United  States  Having  a  Population  of 
30,000  to  50,000.    Average  for  Fiscal  Years  1902  and  1903 

Highest  ten  cities  in  percentile  school  expenditures: 


a 
1 

1 

1 

0  g 

0 

:p 

u 

1 

'H 
V. 

si 

1 

Hi 

1 

Q 

a 

0 

1 

1 

c 
u 

0 

1 

0 
K 

'£ 

3 

4.J 

in 

3 

3 

•c  2 

13 

3 

1 

76 

so.  87 

7.40 

6.35 

9.12 

■40 

10.36 

•39 

2.60 

I   is 

•  07 

11.25 

51 

47 . 2% 

8.09 

6.75 

10. 7S 

.77 

5-97 

7.95 

1.17 

3-67 

.04 

7.60 

34 

47.05 

6.10 

8.8s 

S.89 

1.53 

4-71 

11.85 

6.44 

.01 

•  ss 

6.87 

60 

44.50 

8.84 

9.89 

13.85 

.92 

.74 

10.30 

.18 

1  •?! 

.01 

6.9s 

28 

42.88 

7.09 

6.00 

9.61 

2.10 

.10 

8.19 

7-45 

3  39 

.08 

12.60 

70 

42.82 

6.17 

5-96 

16.73 

.12 

.14 

5  07 

4.72 

2.27 

150 

2.30 

11.12 

36 

41.76 

7-S2 

6.76 

11.52 

2.23 

.56 

9.86 

372 

1.60 

I  .22 

.61 

12.36 

II 

40.80 

8.08 

4.69 

8.71 

.82 

.10 

3.26 

4.06 

2.81 

1.46 

.02 

24.77 

47 

40.70 

5-32 

7.00 

12.07 

.67 

•  73 

6.88 

9.10 

5.85 

3.43 

.26 

7.68 

59 

40.17 

12.16 

7.12 

952 

1.21 

1.67 

4.62 

6.06 

.18 

.08 

•  17 

16.31 

Median, 

42.85 

7.46 

6.76 

10.18 

.87 

•  73 

8.07 

4.72 

2.44 

1.46 

•  13 

11.19 

Average, 

43.88 

7.68 

6.94 

10.78 

i.oS 

1.63 

7.83 

4.80 

2.26 

151 

.41 

11.75 

Lowest  ten  cities  in  percentile  school  expenditures: 


I 

21.70 

11.54 

11.87 

9.22 

1 .40 

4.28 

4-83 

7-8s 

10.65 

-63 

.24 

14.28 

^3 

21.58 

7.67 

7.73 

5-14 

.87 

3-74 

10.74 

5-12 

4-55 

1-55 

•  65 

20.69 

20.57 

6.76 

8.24 

8.35 

1.79 

5.7s 

10.09 

S-91 

3.68 

.24 

•  09 

22.27 

5f 

20.25 

8.54 

9.78 

12.15 

1-52 

8.8s 

5 -69 

1-77 

7-64 

•  31 

.30 

22.95 

46 

19-75 

8.10 

8.07 

12.38 

4-33 

3-59 

6-39 

8.37 

3-52 

25.54 

75 

18.45 

7.15 

7.62 

8.78 

-S3 

1 .01 

10.36 

1-03 

-76 

.89 

•  33 

37.15 

62 

17.90 

7.83 

12.19 

15-72 

3.02 

7-52 

3-90 

6.70 

519 

.16 

2.03 

16.8s 

53 

16.76 

7.96 

11.58 

14-25 

1.67 

4.46 

5.20 

6.74 

13  •  .^o 

■  54 

.33 

15.16 

14 

1372 

7.52 

12.32 

13-45 

1.97 

1-94 

10.96 

3   60 

4-14 

.04 

.63 

28.57 

49 

12.87 

6.05 

13.07 

8.  TO 

3 -OS 

2.10 

7-78 

S-4I 

3-43 

•  .30 

■79 

34.2s 

Median, 

19.10 

7.75 

10.68 

10.69 

1-73 

4.01 

7-09 

5-66 

4-35 

■  31 

■  33 

22.61 

Average, 

18.36 

7.91 

10.25 

10.7s 

2.02 

4-32 

7-59 

5-25 

5-69 

•52 

.60 

23.77 

In  his  analysis  of  the  causes  of  variability  in  percentile  expen- 
diture for  schools  Professor  Elliott  calls  attention  to  many 
possible  causes  operating,  of  course,  in  varying  degree,  among  the 
several  cities  making  up  the  group  studied.  He  expresses  most 
adequately  the  lack  of  scientific  management  of  municipal  affairs 
in  the  following  paragraph: 

"A  municipality  is  seldom  economical  in  the  expenditure  of 
its  revenues.  It  is  far  more  often  either  parsimonious  or  extrava- 
gant.    The  recognition  of  the  principle  of  expediency  is  much 


364  Educational  Administration 

more  frequent  than  that  of  real  worth,  or  of  final  utility.  The 
cost  of  public  service  is  doubled  because  of  the  price  often  paid 
to  mediocrity,  or  on  account  of  the  tribute  levied  under  a  system 
of  political  feudalism.  And  this  price  is  paid  by  reason  of  civic 
inertia  and  impotence,  or  because  the  standards  of  good  service 
are  not  known.  The  social  income  is  spent  according  to  standards 
that  were  or  are,  and  not  according  to  standards  that  ought  to  he. 
A  city  is  not  a  machine,  and  any  description  of  the  forces  that 
make  for  progress  or  otherwise  must  keep  in  mind  that  human 
beings  make  up,  and  human  minds  direct,  municipal  affairs  and 
set  up  civic  standards." 

Along  with  the  study  of  school  expenditures  in  relation  to 
expenditures  for  various  other  sorts  of  municipal  activity  there 
is  need  for  a  companion  study  of  sources  of  revenue.  An  interest- 
ing example  of  a  partial  study  of  this  aspect  of  the  fiscal  problem 
is  found  in  the  report  of  the  Commission  Appointed  to  Study 
the  System  of  Education  in  the  Public  Schools  of  Baltimore. 
The  Commission  found  that  Baltimore  did  not  expend  for  its 
schools  nor  for  its  municipal  affairs  generally  as  much  as  the 
average  or  normal  city.  The  following  table  and  explanation 
taken  from  the  report  of  this  commission  is  suggestive.^ 

^  Report  of  the  Commission  Appointed  to  Study  the  System  of  Education  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  Baltimore.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  No.  4, 
1911. 


Expenditures  for  Schools  in  Relation  to  Others      365 


TABLE    125 

Total  Amounts  and  Amounts  per  Capita  Received  From  Each  of  the  Principal  Sources  op 

Revenue  in  1908 

(The  amounts  are  taken  from  sp)ecial  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census:  Statistics  of  Cities,  1908, 
pp.  192-193;  the  population  figures  from  p.  343.) 


No. 

Cities 

Estimated 
Population 

All  Receipts 

Taxes 

Licenses  and 
Permits 

Total 

Per 
Capita 

Total 

Per 

Capita 

Total 

Per 
Capita 

I 
3 
3 
4 

I 

7 
8 
9 

ID 
11 
13 
13 

Chicisc  III 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Cleveland,  Ohio  .  .  . 

Baltimore,  Md 

Detroit,  Mich 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

San  Francisco,  Cal. . 
Milwaukee,  Wis.   . . 

.\ewark,  N.  J 

New  Orleans,  La.    . 
Washington,  D.  C 
[,os  .Angeles,  Cal.  . . 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

2,092,869 
665,802 
523.187 
549.079 
426,592 
405,714 
402,836 
350,852 
322,784 
329,207 
321,128 
270,491 
286,241 

$41,546,465 
13,799,932 
9.345,285 
8,963,040 
7,037,586 
7,499,983 
9,385,013 
6,142,214 
5,826,020 
5,848,151 
12.168,378 
5,273,272 
4,633.924 

$19.95 
20.71 
17.88 
16.32 
16.49 
18.49 
23.3s 
17  so 
18.07 
17.79 
37.93 
19.53 
16.20 

$31,843,470 
11.773,339 
7,628,341 
7,518,725 
5,457.955 
6,556,446 
7,073.39s 
4,859,602 
3,732,374 
4,771,561 
5,169.874 
3,446,268 
3,868,398 

$15.25 
17.67 
14.59 
13.69 
12.79 
16. i8 
17.55 
13.87 
11-57 
14-50 
16. 12 
12.78 
13-55 

$8,608,914 

1,495,724 

1,329,358 

902,959 

867,432 

709,633 

1,582,537 

869,525 

615,199 

734,212 

644,750 

717,594 

483,334 

$4.12 
2.2s 
2.54 
1.6s 
2.03 
1-75 
3-93 
2.48 
1.91 
2.23 
2.01 
2.66 
1.69 

No. 

Cities 

Estimated 
Population 

Fines  and  Forfeits 

Subventions  and 
Grants  for  Education 

Other  Subven- 
tions and  Grants 
and  Gifts 

Total 

Per 
Capita 

Total 

Per 
Capita 

Total 

Per 
Capita 

3 
3 

4 

I 
7 
8 
9 
10 
II 

13 
13 

Chicago,  111 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Cleveland,  Ohio    . . 

Baltimore.  Md 

Detroit,  Mich 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

San  Francisco.  Cal. . 
Milwaukee,  Wis.   . . 

Newark,  N.  J 

N'cw  Orleans,  La.    . 
Washington,  D.  C 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.  . . 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

2,092,869 
665,802 
523.187 
549.079 
426,592 
405.714 
402,836 
350,852 
322,784 
329,207 
321,128 
270,491 
286,241 

$548,790 

107,020 

23.901 

9.569 

12,334 

3S,020 

33.718 

56,105 

23,672 

32,485 

112,087 

66,147 

57,616 

$0 

263 
161 
457 
174 
289 
086 
084 
160 
073 
098 
349 
245 
202 

$340,585 
283,243 
251,565 
531.787 
670,119 
145,798 
674,194 
263.393 

1,360,293 
185,257 

2,697,137 

1,029,542 
210,196 

$0. 164 

-425 

.481 

-969 

1-570 

-359 

.167 

-751 

.421 

-.S63 

8.403 

3813 

-735 

$204,706 
140,585 
111,115 

29.746 
53.086 
19,683 
93,589 
94,482 
121,239 
3,543,064 
13,721 
14,380 

$0,099 
.211 
.213 

.069 
•  131 
.048 
.238 
.293 
.369 
1.103 
.051 
.050 

"From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  Baltimore,  as  com- 
pared with  other  cities,  secured  the  smallest  amount  per  capita 
from  licenses  and  permits,  was  fifth  in  the  amount  per  capita 
received  from  taxes,  seventh  in  amount  received  from  fines  and 
forfeits,  and  tenth  in  amount  per  capita  received  from  subven- 


366 


Educational  Administration 


tions  and  grants  from  other  civil  divisions  for  education,  while 
nothing  was  received  from  subventions  and  grants  for  other  pur- 
poses. Had  Baltimore  received  as  much  per  capita  from  Hcenses 
and  permits  as  the  median  city,  about  $318,000  would  have  been 
added  to  its  resources  in  1908;  and  had  as  much  been  raised  per 
capita  from  taxes  as  the  median  city,  about  $445,000  would  have 
been  added  to  its  available  funds  for  1908.  While  it  is  true,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  the  subvention  received  from  the  State  for 
educational  purposes  was  paid  by  this  city,  and  still  more  in 
addition,  as  the  State  school  tax,  the  same  may  be  said  of  other 
cities.  In  fact  it  seems  almost  universally  true  that  cities  pay 
more  into  the  State  treasuries  than  they  receive  back  from  them, 
and  it  is  altogether  probable  that  Baltimore  fares  no  worse  in 
this  respect  than  most  cities." 

That  conditions  are  much  the  same  now  as  when  Professor 
Elliott  made  his  investigation  is  indicated  by  the  following  tables 
from  Dr.  Updegraff's  "Expenses  of  City  School  Systems"  which 
is  based  on  the  latest  data  available.^ 

TABLE   126 
Distribution  of  Ratios  of  Total  School  Expenses  to  Population 


Ratio 


Number  of  Cities 


Group  I      Group  II    Group  III    Group  IV     Total 


1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 
3  SO 
4.00 

4-5° 
5.00 

5-50 
6.00 


to  I 

to  2 
to  2 

to  3 
to  3 
to  4 
to  4 
tos 
to  5 
to  6 


.99. 
.49. 
.99. 
.49. 
.99. 
.49. 
.99. 
.49. 
.99. 
.49. 


3 
10 


14 
6 

3 

4 


'  Harlan  Updegraff,  A  Study  of  Expenses  of  City  School  Systems.     U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Bulletin,  191 2,  No.  5. 


Expenditures  for  Schools  in  Relation  to  Others      367 

TABLE   127 
Distribution  of  Ratios  of  School  Expenses  to  Total  City  Expenses 


Ratio 


Number  of  Cities 


Group  I 


Group  II 


Group  III 


Group  IV 


Total 


IS  to 

.109 

.20  to 

.249 

25  to 

.299 

30  to 

349 

35  to 

•399 

40  to 

•449 

•  50  to 

•549 

55  to 

•599 

3 

II 

6 


I 

4 

2 

II 

I 

10 

7 

28 

7 

19 

4 

17 

3 

II 

3 

3 

TABLE    128 
Distribution  of  Ratios  of  School  Expenses  to  Expenses  for  Police 


I  50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 

3  50 
4.00 

4  50 
S-OO 

5  SO 
6.00 
6.50 
7.00 
7  50 
S.oo 


to  1.49 
to  I .99 
to  2 
to  2 
to  3 
to  3 
to  4 
to  4 
to  5 
to  5 
to  6 
to  6 
to  7 
to  7 
to  8 


49. 

99- 
49. 
99. 
49. 
99. 
49. 
99. 
49. 
99. 
49. 
99. 
49. 


Ratio 


Number  of  Cities 


Group  I      Group  II     Group  III    Group  IV      Total 


13 
14 
16 

9 
9 

8 

5 


§  24-  The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 

We  are  in  the  habit  of  claiming  that  in  our  country  there  is 
equal  opportunity  for  every  boy  or  girl  by  reason  of  our  great 
systems  of  free  public  education.  Often  we  overlook  the  fact 
that  communities  differ  very  greatly  in  the  educational  opportu- 
nity which  they  offer.  WHien  we  find  a  community  in  which  the 
schools  are  markedly  inferior,  we  are  apt  to  characterize  the  place 
as  unprogressive.  The  largest  problem  that  we  face  in  our  state 
school  systems  is  that  of  equalizing  the  educational  opportunity 
offered  to  the  children  of  the  rural  community,  the  village  or 
town,  and  the  city.  Along  with  the  shift  of  population  from  the 
country  to  the  city  there  has  come  a  corresponding  concentration 
of  wealth  in  these  larger  centers.  Many  communities  are  to-day 
poorer  than  they  were  fifty  years  ago,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  per  capita  of  other  wealthy  places  may  have  increased  ten  or 
even  fifty  fold. 

It  has  long  been  an  accepted  principle  of  taxation  that  ability 
to  pay  is  the  only  adequate  measure  of  the  amounts  of  tax  to  be 
paid.  The  older  idea  that  a  man  paid  for  certain  benefits  he 
received  was  essentially  non-social  and  impossible  of  acceptance 
in  a  democratic  society.  State  taxes  for  the  support  of  public 
education  have  become  the  rule  in  our  American  Common- 
wealths, and  yet  there  is  as  yet  no  commonly  recognized  principle 
of  distribution  which  adequately  equalizes  the  burden  imposed 
upon  the  various  civil  divisions  within  the  states.  If  men  or 
communities  should  pay  taxes  in  proportion  to  their  ability  to 
pay,  it  follows  that  a  uniform  state  tax  must  be  distributed  on 
some  basis  other  than  that  upon  which  the  tax  is  levied  in  order 
to  equalize  the  burden  of  taxation. 

No  one  would  to-day  deny  that  education  is  a  state  function. 

368 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds  369 

Indeed,  if  the  national  government  had  the  power,  it  might  be 
argued  that  the  only  adequate  organization  and  support  of  educa- 
tion must  be  nation  wide.  Boys  and  girls  do  not  stay  where  they 
grow  up.  Our  population  is  mobile.  The  education  received  by 
A  in  a  New  England  village  community  may  make  for  his  effec- 
tive participation  in  the  life  of  some  other  community  within  the 
state  in  which  he  lives,  in  some  large  city  in  New  England,  or  in 
some  remote  section  of  the  country.  The  fact  the  national  gov- 
ernment aids  schools  of  agriculture  and  engineering  and  the 
agitation  for  a  national  subsidy  for  the  teaching  of  industrial 
and  household  arts  is  not  without  significance  in  indicating  pos- 
sible future  development.  As  the  situation  stands  at  present  the 
equalization  of  opportunity  in  education  as  well  as  the  equaliza- 
tion of  the  burden  of  taxation  in  support  of  schools  rests  almost 
wholly  with  our  states.  By  means  of  state  school  taxes  distrib- 
uted in  such  a  way  as  to  equalize  the  burden  which  each  com- 
munity must  bear,  we  may  hope  to  secure  a  degree  of  equality  of 
opportunity  within  our  states  which  does  not  to-day  exist. 

The  only  adequate  investigation  of  the  apportionment  of  state 
school  funds  is  Professor  Ellwood  P.  Cubberley's  [1905]  "School 
Funds  and  Their  Apportionment."  In  the  pages  which  follow 
are  given  a  few  of  the  tables  presented  by  Professor  Cubberley 
in  his  most  adequate  treatment  of  this  subject.  The  tables  are 
in  the  main  self-explanatory.  The  line  of  reasoning  advanced 
will  be  best  understood  by  presenting  first  Professor  Cubberley's 
conclusions.  The  other  order  would,  of  course,  be  preferable 
were  it  possible  to  present  here  a  more  detailed  abstract  of  the 
investigation. 

"  That  of  the  different  single  bases  used  for  the  apportionment 
of  funds,  *  taxes- where-paid '  and  the  property- valuation  bases 
have  no  educational  significance,  and  do  not  tend  to  equalize 
either  the  burdens  or  the  advantages  of  education. 

'  That  the  use  of  total  population  as  a  basis  of  apportionment 


370  Educational  Administration 

while  an  improvement  over  '  taxes- where-paid '  or  property- 
valuation,  is  at  best  only  a  rough  and  unreliable  method  of 
approximately  determining  the  number  of  children  for  whose 
education  provision  is  to  be  made. 

'*  That  the  use  of  the  school  census  basis  for  the  apportionment 
of  funds,  as  required  by  so  many  state  constitutions,  and  as  used 
in  whole  or  in  part  by  thirty-eight  different  states,  though  an 
improvement  over  the  other  apportionment  bases  so  far  men- 
tioned, is,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  worst  and  most  unjust  bases 
of  apportionment  we  have  in  use,  and  its  complete  abandonment 
in  the  future  for  some  better  single  basis  or  for  a  combination 
basis  plan  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

"  That  total  enrollment,  enrollment  for  a  definite  period,  aver- 
age membership,  average  daily  attendance,  and  aggregate  days' 
attendance  are  each  successive  improvements  over  the  census 
basis  of  apportionment,  and  each  places  a  premium  on  more 
efforts  which  a  community  ought  to  be  encouraged  to  make  than 
the  one  preceding  it. 

"  That  all  these  bases  are  defective  when  used  alone,  because 
none  make  any  better  provision  for  the  needs  of  the  small  school 
than  is  made  under  the  census  basis  of  apportionment,  while 
aggregate  days'  attendance,  used  alone,  would  leave  the  small 
school  in  even  worse  financial  condition. 

That  the  real  unit  of  cost  is  the  teacher  who  must  be  employed 
to  teach  the  school,  and  not  the  children  who  may  or  do  attend, 
and  that  the  teacher  actually  employed  should  accordingly 
occupy  a  prominent  place  in  any  general  apportionment  plan,  the 
remainder  being  given  on  a  basis  which  considers  regularity  of 
attendance  at  the  school. 

"  That  more  equitable  results  could  be  obtained  by  distributing 
all  funds  on  the  basis  of  teachers  actually  employed  than  on  any 
other  single  basis  and  that  the  general  adoption  of  this  basis 
would  be  an  improvement  over  the  census  basis,  but  that  the 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds  371 

best  results  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  bases,  and  hence  a  combination  basis  type  of  apportion- 
ment is  preferable  to  any  single  basis  type. 

"  That,  where  the  fund  at  hand  for  distribution  is  large  enough 
to  permit  of  the  use  of  such  a  plan,  the  best  basis  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  funds  is  a  combination  of  teacher-actually-employed  and 
aggregate  days'  attendance  (or  average  daily  attendance  multi- 
plied by  length  of  term). 

"  That  if  this  combination  basis  of  apportionment  were  adopted 
by  many  of  the  states  now  using  the  census  basis  of  apportion- 
ment, the  minimum  demands  of  the  states  could,  in  most  cases, 
be  substantially  increased  without  increasing  the  general  school 
tax. 

"  That  it  is  both  just  and  desirable  that  the  efforts  made  by 
communities  to  provide  secondary  education  and  many  of  the 
more  recent  advantages  of  education,  such  as  kindergartens, 
manual  training,  evening  schools,  etc.,  should  be  recognized  by 
the  state  in  making  the  apportionment  of  funds,  and  that  an 
incentive  should  be  given  to  communities  to  provide  these  advan- 
tages for  their  children. 

"'  That  even  after  a  distribution  has  been  made  on  such  a  com- 
bination basis  as  that  mentioned  above  there  still  probably  would 
be  heavy  burdens  to  be  borne  by  some  poorer  communities,  in 
which  case  a  certain  "reserve  fund"  should  be  set  aside,  to  be 
distributed  by  some  responsible  educational  body,  for  the  relief 
of  those  communities  which  have  made  the  maximum  effort 
allowed  by  law  and  yet  are  unable  to  meet  the  minimum  demands 
of  the  state,  and  those  whose  peculiar  circumstances  make  some 
additional  assistance  particularly  desirable. 

"  That  the  state,  in  making  the  apportionment  to  the  counties, 
ought  to  use  as  good  an  apportionment  basis  as  is  used  by  the 
counties  themselves  in  making  the  apportionment  to  the  town- 
ships or  districts.    The  use  of  a  good  combination  basis  of  appor- 


372  Educational  Administration 

tionment  within  the  counties  cannot  overcome  the  inequalities 
created  between  the  counties  when  the  state  apportionment  is 
made  on  an  essentially  inferior  basis,  as  for  example,  census. 
The  best  plan  would  seem  to  be  that  the  state  and  county  appor- 
tionments be  made  on  essentially  the  same  combinations  basis, 
the  state  apportionment  being  made  to  the  counties  instead  of  to 
the  townships  or  districts  only  that  any  county  funds  may  first 
be  added  before  making  the  township  or  district  apportionment. 

"  In  states  having  no  state  school  tax  and  only  a  relatively  small 
income  from  the  permanent  school  fund  of  the  state,  this  income 
ought  to  be  reserved,  in  part  at  least,  for  use  in  aiding  necessitous 
communities  and  as  subsidies  to  encourage  the  introduction  of 
new  and  desirable  advantages,  and  it  should  not  be  distributed 
indiscriminately  to  all. 

"  That  the  present  plans  in  use  for  the  apportionment  of  school 
funds  in  fully  three-fourths  of  the  states  of  the  Union  are  in  need 
of  careful  revision,  and  that  there  is  likewise  need  for  a  more  care- 
ful study  of  this  problem  than  has  been  given  it  so  far  by  most  of 
the  states  if  it  is  desired  that  future  evolution  shall  take  place 
along  more  intelligent  lines  than  has  been  the  case  in  the  past." 

The  tables  which  follow  show  clearly  the  inequahties  due  to 
the  methods  of  distribution  commonly  used.  One  does  not  need 
to  argue  at  length  in  favor  of  the  plan  suggested  by  Professor 
Cubberley  of  distributing  on  the  per  teacher  actually  employed 
and  aggregate  days  attended  bases.  Teachers'  salaries  represent 
from  sixty  to  eighty  per  cent  of  the  school  budget.  Encourage- 
ment should  certainly  be  given  to  those  communities  which  keep 
children  in  school. 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 


373 


TABLE   129 

Average  Valuation  of  Massachusetts  Counties,  Per  Census  Child  5-15 
Years  of  Age,  with  the  Rate  of  Increase  or  Decrease  • 


Census,  5-15  Years 

Av.  Valuation  per 
Census  Child 

Rate  of  change 

County 

1871 

1901 

1871 

igoi 

In  Census 

In  Wealth 
per  Child 

Barnstable 

Berkshire 

Bristol 

6,669 

13,085 

19,979 

762 

38,639 
6,068 

13,787 
8,66s 
52,211 
665 
18,045 
12,846 
49,722 
37, "6 

4,199 
17,661 

45,971 

584 

59,261 

7,187 

32,121 

10,312 

96,305 

391 

26,479 

18,619 

103,062 

60,959 

$2,075 
2,961 
4.317 
3,060 
3,650 
2,445 
4,015 
2,943 
4,818 
2.782 
4,642 

2,394 
12,624 

3,284 
5,381 

$5,956 
3,489 
4,173 
7,363 
4,651 

3,222 
4,707 

3-294 
5,486 
8,685  . 
7,974 
4,453 
11,584 
4,068 

6,279 

-37% 
+35% 

+  129% 
-22% 
+53% 
+18% 

+  135% 
+  19% 
+84% 
-70% 
+47% 
+45% 

+  107% 
+64% 

+  73% 

+  186% 
+  18% 
-03% 

+  140% 
+  29% 
+32% 
+  17% 

+  12% 

+  13% 

+  215% 

+  72% 

+86% 
—09% 
+  24% 

Dukes 

Essex 

Franklin 

Hampden 

Hampshire 

Middlesex 

Nantucket 

Norfolk 

Plvmouth 

Suffolk 

Worcester 

The  State 

278,249 

483,103 

+  16% 

'-  35th  An.  Rept.  Bd.  Editc,  Mass.,  for  the  year  1871,  pp.  117-132,  with  statistical 
tables,  pp.  154-172. 
66lh  An.  Rcpt.  Bd.  Ediic,  Mass.,  for  1901-2. 


374 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   130 

Rate  of  Tax  Levied  and  Amount  Produced,  with  Relative  Rank,  of  Twenty- 
One  Massachusetts  Towns  and  Cities,  1901-02 

(Data  selected  from  Graduated  Tables  I  and  II  in  66th  An.  Rept.  Bd.  Educ,  Mass. 
1901-02,  in  "Abstract  of  School  Returns"  for  the  year) 


City  or  Towni 


Seven  levying  highest  rate — 

West  Boylston 

Warren 

East  Longmeadow 

Huntington 

Groveland 

Dighton 

Abington 

Seven  largest  cities — 

Boston - 

Worcester 

Fall  River 

Lowell 

Cambridge 

Lynn 

New  Bedford 

Seven  levying  lowest  rate — 

Brookline 

Hull 

Tolland 

Goshen 

Manchester 

Chilmark 

Nahant 

Gosnold 


Rank  in 
Amount 
Levied 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

333 
192 
260 
194 
2x9 
196 
287 

346 
347 
348 
349 
350 
351 
352 
353 


Rate  of 

Local  Tax 

Levied 

9.20 

mills 

8.79 

8.0 

8. SO 

8.29 

8.18 

7-94 

2-39 

4.61 

3«9 

4 .58 

4-33 

4  56 

3  46 

1. 91 

1-73 

1. 61 

I  SO 

1-37 

I -31 

1 .10 

■85 

Amt.  Produced 
per  Pupil  in  Av. 
Memb.  in  School 


^22. S3 
19.17 
14.17 
15-88 
18.92 
24.11 
25-44 

33-86 
28.45 
22.03 
30.73 
29-51 
28.65 
26.99 

51.68 

45-75 
4.00 

4-43 
33-72 

9-37 
52.10 

10 -53 


Rank  in 

Amount 
Produced 


poorer  towns  received  state  aid  in  addition,  which  the  cities  did 


131 
216 

303 
277 

221 

95 

75 

15 
40 

137 
21 
28 
38 
42 

3 

7 

350 

351 

16 

343 
2 

336 


I  The 


not. 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 


2>1S 


TABLE   131 

An  Analysis  of  the  Returns  for  Fairfield  County,  Connecticut,  for  the 
School  Year  1901-02 

(Calculated  from  data  given  in  the  Rept.  Conn.  Bd.  Educ.  for  1903,  statistical  tables, 
pp.  260,  261,  274,  and  283) 


Towns 

Total            'Census  4-16  Yrs. 
Valuation        |      Oct.,  1901 

Valuation 
per  Child 

No.  of  Schools 
(Depts.) 

Bridgeport 

$61,560,175 
7,978,801 
1,189,543 

431,200 
2,606,241 

489,310 
3,360,460 
8,758,830 
4,112,611 

357,500 
1,939,190 

341,064 

1,565,763 
1^,840,031 

575,274 

1,879,961 

324,802 

10,531,321 

1,437,031 
642,293 
298,184 

2,319,055 
870,014 

17,369 
4,641 

715 
196 

443 
189 

953 
2,662 

1,332 
194 

594 
128 

565 

4,632 

217 

549 
128 

4,567 
904 
322 
155 
853 
374 

$3,544 
1,764 
1,663 
2,200 
5,883 
2,588 
3,526 
3,294 
3,086 

1,843 
3,26s 
2,664 
2,771 
2,984 
2,651 
3,424 
2,539 
2,306 

1,589 
1,995 
1,924 
2,719 
2,324 

$2,985 

219 

67 
18 

Danbury 

Bethel 

Brookfield 

8 

Darien 

1 1 

Easton 

9 
17 

Fairfield 

Greenwich 

■^o 

Huntington 

Monroe 

26 

7 

New  Canaan 

17 

New  Fairfield 

6 

Newton 

22 

Norwalk 

71 

Redding 

8 

Ridgefield 

17 

Sherman 

6 

Stamford 

92 

Stratford 

17 

Trumbull 

8 

Weston 

Westp)ort 

14 

II 

The  County 

$127,408,654 

42,682 

726 

;76 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE    131    (Continued) 


Towns 


Bridgeport.  .  . 
Danbury.  .  .  . 

Bethel 

Brookfield.  .  . 

Darien 

Easton 

Fairfield 

Greenwich .  .  . 
Huntington.  . 

Monroe 

New  Canaan.  . 
New  Fairfield. 

Newton 

Nor  walk 

Redding 

Ridgefield.  .  .  . 

Sherman 

Stamford 

Stratford 

Trumbull.  .  .  . 

Weston 

Westport 

Wilton 


The  County. 


Av.  Valuation 

Per  School 

(Dep't.) 


$281,097 

119,088 

66,085 

53,900 

236,840 

54,364 
197,674 

175,177 
158,177 

51,071 
113,481 

56,844 

71,171 
194,930 

71,909 
110,586 

54,134 
144,471 

84,531 
80,287 
58,037 
165,646 
78,183 

$175,494 


Rate  of  Tax 

in  Mills 
for  $250 


.88  mills 
.  10     " 


3-79 
4.64 
I  05 
4.60 
1 .26 

1-43 
1.68 
4.90 
2.  20 
4.40 

3-51 
1.28 
3-48 
2.  26 
4.61 

1-73 
2.96 

3  13 
4-33 
I-5I 
319 

1.42 


Rate  of  Local 

Tax  Levied 

igoi-02 


3 .  26  mills 

4.40 

7. 16 
4-55 
2.45 
4-43 
3  19 
2-43 
3.20 

4-25 
4.29 
389 
3-97 
2-93 
2.96 
2.89 

3-47 
6.78 
6.76 
5  19 
3-07 
1.85 
2.79 


Cost  per  Pupil 

in  Av.  Dy.  Att. 

for  Maint. 


$28.06 

24 -55 
18.70 
20.  25 

33-79 
21 .07 
29.09 
24  50 
19.91 
17.01 
26.  22 
22.89 

24 -39 
22.26 
20.18 
20.9s 
19.21 
30.40 
21.84 
25.86 

19 -59 
14.96 

15-87 
$23.18 


TABLE   132 

Illustrating  Inequalities  Existing  in  the  State  of  Missouri 

(Calculated  for  the  school  year  1903-04  from  statistical  data  given  in  the  Rept. 

Stale  Supt.  of  Pub.  Instr.  of  Mo.,  1904) 


Counties 


Total 
Valuation 


Census 
4-20  ' 
Years 


Av.  Val. 

per 
Census 

Child 

No.  Trs. 
Employed 

Av.  Val. 

per  Tr. 

Employed 

$809 

151 

$36,423 

1,508 

108 

70,119 

1,757 

126 

66,582 

1,336 

146 

59,263 

539 

137 

32,958 

1,031 

141 

42,540 

1,142 

173 

58,781 

789 

109 

39,371 

2,331 
$1,290 

1,859 

223,682 
$75,387 

17,036 

Tax  in 

Mills 

for  $250 

per  Tr. 


Adair 

Andrew 

Atchi.son  ^ .  ... 

Audrain 

Barry 

Barton 

Bates.  . 

Benton 

St.  Louis,  City. 

The  State 


$5,500,000' 
7,572,928 

8,389,345 
8,752,360 
4,515,310 

5,998,313 

10,169,171 

4,291,470 

415,824,520 


51,284,294,571 


6,800 
5,020 
4,775 
7,549 
8,368 

5,817 

8,907 

5,437 

178,260 

995,536 


3-32 


•  Due  to  an  evident  typographical  error  in  the  Report  for  1904,  the  figures  for 
this  county  were  taken  from  the  Report  for  1903. 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 


377 


TABLE   133 

Illustrating  Inequalities  Existing  in  the  State  of  California 

(Calculated  for  the  school  3'ear  1903-04  from  data  given  in  the  statistical  tables  of 
the  2ist  Bien.  Rept.  Siipt.  Pub.  Instr.,  CuL,  1903-04) 


Counties 

Total 
Valuation 

Census 
S-17  Years 

Av.  Val. 

per 
Census 
Child 

No.  Trs. 

Em- 
ployed 

Av.  Val. 

per  Tr. 

Employed 

Tax  in 

Mills 

for  $250 

per  Tr. 

Alameda 

Alpine 

$128,681,766 

422,063 

4,918,908 

16,057,766 

6,177,275 
12,188,096 

21,753,956 

2,882,445 

564,070,301 

34,939 
78 
2,389 
4,677 
2,631 
1,858 

4,897 
678 

97,353 

$3,362 
5,411 
2,059 
3,433 
2,348 
6,559 
4,442 
4,251 
5,794 

$3,923 

575 

3 

63 

108 

73 
53 
98 
18 
996 

$223,620 
140,688 
78,236 
148,683 
84,620 
229,964 
221,979 
160,136 
566,336 

$205,028 

1. 12 

1.77 
3^18 
I  68 

Amador 

Butte 

Calaveras 

Colusa 

2.96 
I  08 

Contra  Costa.  .  .  . 

Del  Norte 

San  Francisco 

I   13 

1.56 

•44 

The  State 

$1,598,603,226 

407,398 

7,797 

1.22 

TABLE   134 

Highest  and  Lowest  Rate  of  Tax  in  Mills  Necessary  to  Produce  $250  by 
Local  Taxation,  with  State  A\'erages 

(Compiled  from  the  preceding  tables) 


Table 

Item 

Rate  of  Taxation  in  Mills 

Number 

Highest 

Lowest 

Average 

2 

•^7  Massachusetts  towns 

11.62 
2.97 

8.41 

4.90 

"■57 

7^58 

10.88 
3-18 

10.41 

■36 
1.42 

I   35 

.88 
•  72 

3-56 

3  90 
■44 

X.76 

6 

8  Connecticut  counties 

State  of  Connecticut.  .  .  .• 

I    75 
2.68 

7 
8 

15  towns  of  Windham  Co 

23  towns  of  Fairfield  Co 

1 .42 

10 

9  Wisconsin  counties 

State  of  Wisconsin 

195 

II 

8  Missouri  counties 

State  of  Missouri 

332 

12 

8  Kansas  counties 

13 

9  California  counties 

State  of  California 

1 .  22 

14 

10  Indiana  counties 

State  of  Indiana 

2.00 

378 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE   135 

Summary  of  Statistical  Tables  Showing  Wealth,  Tax  Rate,  and  Cost  of 
School  by  Counties  ^ 


Per  Capita  Wealth- 
Lowest  

Highest 

Medium 

Local  Rate,  per  $ioo  of  tax- 
ables — 

Lowest 

Highest 

Medium 

Annual  Per  Capita  Cost  per 
Pupil  Enrolled — 

Lowest 

Highest 

Medium 


Massachusetts 


$S3S-00 

1,982.00 

700.00 


•33 
.88 

•395 


SIQ.OO 

46.50 
31.90 


Washington 


$44.00 

2,436.00 

640.00 


■13 
.19 

•S3 


Sii.oo 

45.00 

20.00 


New  York 


$328.00 

1,507.00 

682.00 


.  21 

•83 

•395 


5i6.oo 
73.00 
26.50 


Indiana 


$222.00 

1,37500 

576.50 


•15 
I .  II 

•63 


fll.OO 

42.00 

21.50 


For  the  state  of  New  York,  a  state  in  which  total  population 
is  used  as  a  partial  basis  for  the  apportionment  of  state  funds, 
similar  calculations  from  the  returns  of  the  School  Commissioners 
for  the  first  fifteen  counties,  as  arranged  in  alphabetical  order, 
cities  omitted,  give  the  results  ^  shown  in  Table  136. 

1  Charles  S.  Meek,  Slate  and  Local  Taxation  for  Public  Schools.  Teachers  College 
Record,  Vol.  XI,  No.  5.  All  of  the  other  tables  are  from  Professor  Cubberley's 
study. 

*  Calculated  from  data  given  in  tables  3  and  4  of  the  Kept.  Supt.  Pub.  Instr.  of 
New  York,  1902,  Vol.  II.  The  calculations  are  based  on  the  National  Census  of 
1900,  the  biennial  state  school  census  of  1901,  and  the  number  of  teachers  employed 
for  the  school  year  1900-1901. 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 


379 


TABLE   136 

The  Relation  of  the  Number  of  Children  and  of  Teachers  to  the  Whole 

Population 


County 


Albany 

Allegany.  .  . 
Broome.  .  .  . 
Cattaraugus, 
Cayuga.  .  .  . 
Chatauqua.  . 
Chemung.  .  . 
Chenango.  . 


Children  of 
Census  Age 


20.1% 
21.5% 
20.4% 
19-7% 

19-2% 

21.4% 
21.5% 
19-0% 


Teachers 

Employed 

per  1,000 

Inhabs. 


County 


Clinton.  . 
Columbia 
Cortland. 
Delaware. 
Dutchess . 

Erie 

Essex.  . . . 


Children  of 
Census  Age 


27-5% 
18.8% 
19  0% 
20.3% 
18.2% 
25  0% 
23  0% 


Teachers 
Employed 
per  1,000 

Inhabs. 


7.3 
6.3 
10.5 
9.6 
50 
5-9 
9-7 


TABLE   137 

Percentage  Enrolled  and  the  Value  of  the  State  Apportionment  on  En- 
rollment for  Certain  Wisconsin  Counties 

(Calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  census  of  the  summer  of  1903  and  the  enrollment 
for  the  school  year  1903-04,  from  statistical  data  given  in  the  Rept.  Supl.  Pub. 
Itistr.,  Wis.,  for  1903-04) 


Counties.  Including  Cities  clnsu^f-ao' 

Under  a  City  Superintendent  y^^^  Eliroiled 

Adam.s 77% 

Ashland* 65% 

Barron 74% 

Bayfield 74% 

Brownt 51% 

Buffalo 67% 

Burnett 70% 

Calumet 50% 

MilwaukeeJ 43% 

*  City  of  Ashland,  alone 61% 

t  City  of  Green  Bay,  alone 56% 

X  City  of  Milwaukee,  alone 41% 

State  of  Wisconsin,  average 61% 

State,  cities  omitted 65% 

Cities  alone 52% 


Value  of  $1.82  J^  Census 
Apportionment  on 
Actual  Enrollment 


$2.37 
2.8l 
2.46 
2.46 
358 
2-73 
2.61 

3-65 
4.24 

2.99 
3.26 
4-45 

2.69 
2.81 
3SI 


38o 


Educational  Administration 


TABLE    138 
What  $i  .00  of  Census  Apportionment  is  Worth  on  Total  Enrollment 


Counties,  in  Alphabetical 
Order,  and  Cities 


Wis. 

Kan. 

Mo. 

Cal. 

$1.30 

$1.49 

$1.25 

$1-43 

1-54 

2.22 

•97 

1.28 

1-35 

I.  16 

I  05 

1.28 

1-35 

1-54 

1.28 

1. 17 

1.96 

2.08 

1. 00 

1.32 

1.49 

1. 19 

1.07 

1.20 

1-43 

I. II 

1 .11 

IIS 

2.00 

1. 16 

1 .  29 

1.28 

2.44 

1-73 

2.08 

1.56 

1.89 

1-59 

2.17 

1 

1.92 

1-52 

3-59 

Ind. 


ISt 

2d 

3d 

4th 

Sth 

6th 

7th 

Sth 

Largest  city 

Second  largest  city, 
Third  largest  city.  . 


$1.45 
2.08 

1-35 
1 .20 
1.26 
1.22 
1.32 
I  25 
1.47 
2.17 
2.38 


TABLE    139 

Showing  What  Small  Country  Schools  of  Certain  Sizes  in  Wisconsin  Would 
Receive  Under  Certain  Plans  of  Apportionment,  Basing  Calcul.a- 
TioNS  on  Total  Apportionment,  Census,  Enrollment,  and  Estimated 
Average  Daily  Attendance 

(Calculated  for  1903-04  from  statistical  data  given  in  the  Rcpt.  Supt.  Pub.  Instr., 
Wis.,  1903-04.  See  similar  preceding  tables.  The  different  apportionment 
values  are  calculated  on  the  state  averages,  but  the  percentages  used  in  the  table 
are  those  for  town  and  country  schools  only) 


Census, 
4-20  Years 


Amount  of  State  Aid  Apportioned  on 


Total 

Enrollment 

at  $2.99 


Forty-day 

Enrollment 

with  20%  loss, 

at  $3.52 


Av.  By.  Att. 
at  70%  of 
Enrollment, 

and  at  $4.15 


$20 

93 

29 

44 
59 

90 

85 
80 

74 

89 

119 

75 
70 
60 

149 

50 

179 

40 

209 

30 

239 
266 

20 
II 

$21 .12 

28.16 

42.24 

56.32 

70.40 

84.48 

I I 2 . 64 

140 . 80 

168.96 

197.12 

224.38 

249.92 


$20.75 
29.05 

41-50 
58.10 

70.5s 

8715 

116. 20 

145.25 
174-30 
203.35 
232.40 
257.30 


*  Dsta  for  calculation  lacking. 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 


TABLE   140 


381 


Apportionments  of  Four  Schools  Comp.ared  on  the  Census,  Total  Enholl- 
MENT,  Forty-day  Enrollment,  and  Average  Daily  Attendance  Bases 


State  Ntf.  1 

State  No.  2 

Per  Cent 

100% 

75% 
15% 

60% 
70% 
SO% 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Total  school  census  of  each  district 

Per  cent  of  census  enrolled 

40 
30 

25 -5 

18 
21 
15 

100% 
80% 
19% 

75% 
85% 
6S% 

40 
32 
25-9 

24 

27.2 

20.8 

Loss  on  a  forty-day  enrollment 

Av.  Dy.  Att.  on  enrollment — 

The  general  state  average 

Averages  of  Districts  A  and  B 

Averages  of  Districts  C  and  D 

On  a  basis  of  a  per-capita  on  census  apportionment  of  $i.oo 
this  gives  the  following  per-capita  values  for  the  state  apportion- 
ment in  each  state: 

TABLE  141 


Apportionment  on  census 

Apportionment  on  total  enrollment 

Apportionment  on  forty-day  enrollment.  .  . . 
Apportionment  on  average  daily  attendance 


Sta'.e  No.  2 


Using  the  above  values  for  calculation  we  get  the  following  for 
a  school  of  forty  census  children,  calculated  on  the  state  averages: 


On  Census 

On  Total 
Enrollment 

On  Forty-day 
Enrollment 

On  Av. 
Dy.  Att. 

State  No.  i 

State  No.  2 

$40.00 
40.00 

$40.00 
40.00 

$40.00 
40.00 

$40.00 
40.00 

This  is  only  a  natural  result.  There  being  only  so  much  money 
to  be  distributed,  a  school,  whatever  its  size,  will  always  get  the 
same  amount  of  money  on  any  basis  of  distribution,  so  long  as  the 


382 


Educational  Administration 


average  for  the  school  is  the  same  as  the  average  for  the  state. 
It  is  only  when  the  school  varies  from  the  state  average  that  it 
gains  or  loses.  This  may  be  shown  by  making  similar  calculations 
for  the  four  schools,  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  which  varied  from  the  state 
averages  in  average  daily  attendance,  as  given  above.  Doing 
this,  we  get  the  following  result: 


District 

On  Census 

On  Enrollment 

On  Average  Daily  Attendance 
State  No.  i           State  No.  2 

A 

$40.00 
40.00 
40.00 
40.00 

$40.00 
40.00 
40.00 
40.00 

$46 . 66 
33-33 

B 

$45-33 

c 

D 

34.66 

TAB 

i.E   142 

Income  of  a  City  School  and  a  Small  Country  School  Compared  Under  the 
Census,  Average  Daily  Attendance,  and  Aggregate  Days'  Attendance 
Bases 


School 


Country. 
City.  . .  . 


Census 


29 
73 


Enrollment 


20 
50 


Av.  Dy.  Att. 


36.5 


Term 


127  days 
200 


School 


Country. 
City.  .  .  . 


Census 
at  $2.90 


$04. 10 
2n .  70 


Value  of  State  Apportionment  on 


Av.  Dy.  Att. 
at  $5.36 


$77-72 
195.64 


Av.  Dy.  Att.  X  Term  at  3>^c. 
per  Pupil  per  Day 


i4.SXi27X.03K==$64-4S 
36 . 5  X  200X  .  03K  =  256 .  30 


The  Apportionment  of  School  Funds 


383 


TABLE   143 

Effect  of  an  AppoRTioNSiENT  on  Census  and  on  Teachers  Compared  for 
Certain  Wisconsin  Counties 


County 


Adams. .  .  . 
Ashland.  .  . 
Barron. .  . . 
Bayfield.  . , 
Brown. .  . . 
Buffalo.  .  . 
Burnett.  .  . 
Calumet.  . 
Milwaukee 


Tax  in  Mills 

to  Raise  $250 

per  Teacher 


6.75 
314 
5-83 
2.03 
1.56 
3  04 
11-57 
1.44 
.72 


Av.  Value  of 

State  Apport. 

per  Teacher 

Employed 


$46 . 40 
96.44 
84.61 

84-55 
176.69 

87.58 

60.37 

134-38 

193.29 


Tax  in  Mills 

for  Balance 

of  I250  per 

Teacher 


5    SO 

1-93 

3  84 

1-34 

.46 

1.97 

8.78 

.66 

•17 


Value  of 

State  Apport. 
on  Teacner 

Basis 

$103.36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

103 

36 

Tax  in  Mills 

for  Balance 

of  $250  per 

Teacher 

3-96 
1 .90 
3-41 
1.18 
.86 

1-74 
6.07 

-84 
.421 


TABLE   144 

Effect  of  an  Apportionment  on  Census  and  on  Teachers  Compared  for 
Certain  Missouri  Counties 


Counties 


Adair 

Andrew 

Atchison 

Audrain 

Barry 

Barton 

Bates 

Benton 

St.  Louis  (City) 


Tax  in  Mills 
to  Raise  $250 


6.86 

3-56 

3-75 
4.22 

758 
5-87 
4-25 
6-34 


Av.  Value 

State  Apport. 

p)er  Teacher 

Employed 


$  58.14 
60.00 
47.00 

57-91 
78.85 
53-26 
66.46 
64 -39 
123.79 


Tax  in  Mills 

for  Balance 

of  $250 


5-27 
2.70 

305 
3-24 
5 -20 
4.60 
3.12 
4.70 
.56 


Value  of 

State  Apport. 

on  Teacher 

Basis 


75-44 
75-44 
75-44 
75-44 
75-44 
75-44 
75-44 
75-44 
75-44 


Tax  in  Mills 

for  Balance 

of  %2$o 


^  To  produce  the  balance  of  $500  instead  of  $250  per  teacher  employed,  this  rate 
would  be  only  i  .85  mills;  and  to  produce  the  balance  of  $800  per  teacher,  the  rate 
would  be  but  3 .  24  mills. 

*  To  produce  the  balance  of  $500  instead  of  $250  per  teacher  employed,  this 
rate  would  be  only  i .  15  mills,  and  to  produce  the  balance  of  $750  per  teacher,  the 
rate  would  be  but  i  .87  mills. 


384  Educational  Administration 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  since  Professor  Cubberley's  inves- 
tigation was  published  several  states  have  undertaken  to  revise 
the  basis  for  apportioning  their  school  moneys.  In  two  of  them 
at  least,  to  the  writer's  personal  knowledge,  Dr.  Cubberley's 
book  was  continually  consulted  by  the  legislative  committee 
which  prepared  the  bill  embodying  the  new  basis  of  apportion- 
ment. 

The  plan  not  uncommonly  found  of  giving  special  aid  for  the 
newer  types  of  educational  endeavor  is  to-day  receiving  wide 
recognition  in  the  special  subsidies  which  are  being  granted  for 
industrial  schools.  Doubtless  it  will  always  be  necessary  to 
reserve  a  part  of  the  state  money  for  the  encouragement  of  those 
educational  experiments  which  need  not  simply  state  aid  but 
also  the  stamp  of  approval  thus  given. 

Along  with  the  provision  made  through  the  equitable  distribu- 
tion of  school  funds  for  equality  of  educational  opportunity  and 
of  the  burden  sustained  in  supporting  education,  there  should 
be  developed  a  system  of  fines  or  penalties,  enforced  by  withhold- 
ing state  funds,  which  will  operate  to  secure  the  enforcement  of 
the  educational  laws  of  the  state.  A  community  which  fails  to 
enforce  the  compulsory  education  law,  which  violates  the  regula- 
tions with  respect  to  proper  school  accommodations,  which  hires 
a  teacher  whose  training  is  less  than  that  required  by  law,  or 
which  in  any  other  way  falls  below  the  minimum  standard  estab- 
lished by  the  state  can  be  made  to  recognize  the  importance  of 
comphance  with  state  regulations  without  difficulty  when  the 
state  money  is  withheld  wholly  or  in  part.  Unless  some  such 
penalty  is  attached  the  least  progressive  communities,  the  one 
for  which  the  minimum  standards  of  efficiency  are  made,  will 
have  little  respect  for  the  laws  enacted  for  the  benefit  of  the 
children  of  the  state. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  REFERENCES  IN  THE  TEXT 


Ayres,  L.  p. 
BLA>f,  L.  B. 


BONSER,   F.    G. 

Bryan,  J.  E. 

coffman,  l.  d. 
cornman,  o.  p. 
Cubberley,  E.  p. 
Earhart,  L.  B. 
Elliott,  E.  C. 
Hillegas,  M.  B. 

Jessup,  W.  a. 
Keyes,  C.  H. 


1909 
1911 


1910 


1907 


191 1 


1908 


1905 


1908 


190S 


1912 


1911 


1911 


Laggards  in  Our  Schools. 

A  Special  Study  of  the  Incidence  of  Retarda- 
tion. Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, Contribulions  to  Education,  No.  40. 

The  Reasoning  Ability  of  Children  of  the 
Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth  School  Grades. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Con- 
tributions to  Education,  No.  37. 

A  Method  for  Determining  the  Extent  and 
Causes  of  Retardation  in  a  City  School 
System.  Psychological  Clinic,  vol.  i,  pp. 
41-52. 

The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Pop- 
ulation. Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, Contributions  to  Education,  No.  41. 

The  Retardation  of  the  Pupils  of  Five  City 
School  Systems.  Psychological  Clinic, 
vol.  I,  pp.  245-257. 

School  Fimds  and  Their  Apportionment. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Con- 
tributions to  Education,  No.  2. 

Systematic  Study  in  the  Elementary  School. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Con- 
tribidions  to  Education,  No.  18. 

Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Education.  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  Contributions 
to  Education,  No.  6. 

A  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality 
in  English  Composition  by  Young  Peo- 
ple. Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  XIII, 
No.  4. 

Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Con- 
tributions to  Education,  No.  43. 

Progress  Through  the  Grades  of  City  Schools. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Con- 
tributions to  Education,  No.  42. 
38s 


386 


Bibliography 


Meek,  C.  S. 
Meriam,  J.  L. 

Payne,  B.  R. 

Stone,  C.  W. 

Strayer,  G.  D. 
Thorndike,  E.  L. 
Thorndike,  E.  L. 

Updegraff,  H. 

Van  Denbxirg,  J.  K. 


iQio  State  and  Local  Taxation  for  Public  Schools. 
Tcac'  rs  College  Record,  Vol.  XI.,  No.  5. 

1905  Normal  School  Education  and  Efficiency  in 
Teaching.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, Contributions  to  Education,  No.  i. 

1905     Elementary  School  Curricula. 

Report   of    the    Commission    Appointed    to 
Study   the    System   of    Education   in   the 
Public  Schools  of  Baltimore.     U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin,  No.  4,  191 1. 

1908  Arithmetical  Abilities  and  Some  of  the  Factors 
Determining  Them.  Teachers  College,  Co- 
lumbia University,  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  19. 

1905  City  School  Expenditures.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  5. 

1908  The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School.    Bid^ 

letin,  No.  4,  1907,  Whole  Number  379,  ol 
the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

1909  The  Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in 

the  United  States:  Amount  of  Education, 
Length  of  Experience,  Salaries.  Bulletin, 
1909,  No.  4,  Whole  Number  404,  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

191 2  A  Study  of  the  Expenses  of  City  School  Sys- 
tems. 

19 1 1  Causes  of  the  Elimination  of  Students  in 
Public  Secondary  Schools  of  New  York 
City.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, Contributions  to  Education,  No.  47. 


INDEX 


Abilities  in  arithmetic  in  relation  to  en-      Bowdoin,  individual  courses  of  study 


\aronment,  240 
Ability  in  entrance  examinations  related 
to  ability  in  each  year  of  college  work, 

177,  184  ff. 
Ability,  in  relation  to  elimination,  50  ff., 

53 

Acceleration,  causes  of,  41  ff. 

Age-grade  table,  260 

Age-grade  tables,  significance  of,  3  ff. 

Age,  in  relation  to  grade  of  pupils,  3  ff.; 
of  leaving  school,  5,  8,  12  f.,  15  ff.; 
of  entrance  to  school,  41;  of  entrance 
to  high  school,  48,  51  f.;  of  teachers 
at  entrance  to  teaching,  104 

Apportionment  of  school  funds,  368  ff. 

Arithmetical  abilities  and  some  of  the 
factors  determining  them,  233  ff.;  pre- 
hminary  tests,  233  ff . ;  what  the  scores 
measure,  235;  scores  for  twenty-si.v 
school  systems,  236  ff.;  ratio  of  time 
expended  to  abilities,  238 

Assigning  lessons,  method  of,  244 

Attendance,  form  for  reporting,  261;  in 
relation  to  retardation,  41  f. 

Ayres,  L.  p.,  s,  28,  35 

Baltimore,  enrollment  statistics  of,  16  f. 

Baltimore,  report  of  commission  af>- 
pointed  to  study  the  system  of  educa- 
tion in  public  schools  of,  quoted,  160 

ff.,  36s  ff. 
Blan,  L.  B.,  37  ff. 
BoNSER,  F.  G.,  54  ff. 
Boston,  enrollment  statistics  of,  16  f. 


at,  190;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing "at,  201  f. 

Brooklyn.   See  New  York  City. 

Bryan,  J.  E.,  5 

Budget,  city  school,  324  ff. 

Business  manager  in  city  school  sys- 
tems, 270 

Chester,  promotion  in,  29 

Chicago,   enrollment   statistics  of,    17; 

promotion  in,  28,  29 
Cleveland,  enrollment  statistics  of,  16  f., 

18,  23  f. 
Coefficients  of   correlation,    tables   of, 

328  ff. 

COFFMAN,  L.  D.,  94  ff. 

College,  examinations  for  entrance  to, 

176  ff. 
Columbia,  individual  courses  of  study 

at,  191;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing" at,  201  f. 
Columbus  (Ohio),  enrollment  statistics 

of,  17;  promotion  in,  29 
Committee  of  Ten,  report  of,  165  f. 
Connecticut,  age-grade  table  for,  4,  15; 

eUmination  of  pupils  in,  22 
Cornell,  individual  courses  of  study  at, 

192;  specialization  and  "scattering" 

at,  201  f. 

CORNMAN,  O.  P.,  S 

Correlation,  coefficients  of,  328  ff. 
Course  of  study,  and  promotion,  30  f., 

44;  in  rural  high  schools,  166  ff.;  for 

the  A.  B.  degree,  188  ff. 


387 


388 


Index 


CUBBERLEY,  E.  P.,  369  ff. 

Cumulative  record  card,  252  ff. 

Curriculum,  the  elementary  school, 
149  fli;  effect  of  public  opinion  upon, 
150;  overcrowded,  151;  and  longer 
school  day,  150;  percentages  of  total 
time  given  to  each  subject,  152;  time 
in  minutes  for  each  subject,  152;  per- 
centage of  recitation  time  given  to 
each  subject,  153;  time-table.  New 
York  City  schools,  1888,  1904,  154; 
time-table,  St.  Louis  schools,  1888, 
1904,  155;  time  devoted  to  each  sub- 
ject in  English  cities,  156  ff.;  time 
devoted  to  each  subject  in  German 
cities,  158  ff.;  time  devoted  to  old 
subjects  and  to  new  subjects,  160; 
time  devoted  to  arithmetic  and  alge- 
bra in  American  cities,  161;  place 
in  course  where  certain  topics  in 
arithmetic  are  taught,  162;  time  de- 
voted to  manual  training,  163;  meas- 
uring results,  163 

Dayton,  enrollment  statistics  of, 
17,18 

Defects,  of  vision,  in  relation  to  re- 
tardation, 41;  in  relation  to  elimina- 
tion, 48,  42. 

Degree  of  A.  B.,  studies  actually  taken 
for,  188  ff. 

Denver,  enrollment  statistics  of,  1 7,  23  f . 

Deportment,  and  retardation,  41 

Distribution,  of  pupils,  by  age  and 
grade,  3  ff. 

Earhart,  Lida  B.,  242  ff. 
East  Orange,  promotion  in,  37  ff. 
Economic  factors,  in  elimination,  50,  53 
Economic  status,  of  pupils,  67  ff.;  of 

teachers,  100  ff. 
Eklucation,  of  teachers,  length  of,  122  ff., 

in  relation  to  salary,  87  ff.,  93  ff.,  97  ff. 


EflSdency  in  teaching,  77  ff.;  in  relation 
to  ability  shown  in  normal  school, 
78  ff.;  in  relation  to  length  of  expe- 

■    rience,  79  ff. 

Election  of  studies  in  American  colleges, 
188  ff. 

Elgin,  promotion  in,  29 

Elimination  of  pupils  from  school,  5,  8, 
9  ff.;  as  measured  by  individual  life- 
histories,  9;  as  inferred  from  registra- 
tion statistics,  10  f.;  in  relation  to  age, 
12  f.,  15  ff.;  in  relation  to  grade,  13  ff.; 
estimated  from  enrollment  by  age, 
19  ff.;  and  growth  of  population,  19  f.; 
and  migration  to  and  from  cities,  20  f. ; 
in  relation  to  promotion  and  retarda- 
tion, 26  ff.,  32  ff.;  causes  of,  46  ff. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  179,  267  ff. 

Elizabeth,  promotion  in,  37  ff. 

Elliott,  E.  C,  quoted,  354  ff. 

English  composition,  scale  for  quality 
of,  229  ff. 

Enrollment,  in  relation  to  age  and  grade, 
3  ff.;  in  relation  to  estimates  of  elimi- 
nation, 10  f.,  16  ff.;  of  high  schools, 
in  relation  to  the  sex-balance  of  the 
teaching  staff,  132  ff.;  of  public  high 
schools,  165  ff. 

Entrance  examinations,  176  ff. 

Entrance  to  school,  age  of,  41,  44 

Environment  and  ability  in  arithmetic, 
240 

Examinations  for  entrance  to  college, 
176  ff. 

Expectation,  of  completing  high  school 
course,  in  relation  to  elimination,  50, 

52  f. 

Expenditures,  city  school,  267;  classifi- 
cation of,  273  ff.;  basis  for  comparing, 
277;  variability,  278  ff.;  relationships, 
325  ff.;  cost  per  pupil  for  each  item 
of  expense,  279  ff . 

Expenditures,  for  schools  and  for  other 


Index 


389 


municipal  activities,  352  ff.;  variabil- 
ity. 354  ff-;  relationships,  361  ff. 
Experience  in  teaching,  length  of,  1 24  ff . ; 
in  relation  to  efficiency  in  teaching, 
79  fl.;  in  relation  to  salary',  82  ff., 
95  f. 

Family,  size  of,  in  case  of  American 

teachers,  102 
Feminization  of  education,  145 
Financial  reports,  uniform,  271 
Fiscal  statistics,  form  for  reporting,  255 

ff. 
Fitchburg,  enrollment  statistics  of,  1 7 
Flexibility,  of  courses  of  study,  in  large 

high  schools,  173 
Foreign  parentage,  in  relation  to  re- 
tardation, 41;  in  relation  to  elimina- 
tion, 49 

Galesburg,  promotion  in,  35 

Grades,  in  relation  to  age  of  pupils,  3  ff.; 

inequaUty  of,  in  length,  26  ff.,  37  ff.; 

relation  of  reasoning  ability  to,  65  ff. 
Graduates  of  high  schools,  sex-balance 

of,  137  ff- 
Grand  Rapids,  enrollment  statistics  of, 

17,  23  f. 

Handwriting,  scales  for  quality  of,  208  ff. 

Hartford,  retardation  and  acceleration 
in,  41  ff. 

Harvard,  individual  courses  of  study 
at,  193;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing "at,  201  f. 

Headaches,  in  relation  to  elimination,  48 

Heredity,  and  retardation,  43  f. 

HlLLEGAS,  M.  B.,  229 

Illness,  in  relation  to  elimination,  48 
Income  of  parents  of  teachers,  102  ff. 
Industry,    in   relation    to   elimination, 
50  f. 


Inequality,  of  grades,  in  length,  26  ff., 
37  ff. 

Jamestown,  promotion  in,  29    ' 
Jersey   City,   enrollment  statistics  of, 

17,  23  f. 
Jessup,  W.  a.,  io8  ff.,  149  ff. 
Johnstown,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 
JUDD,  C.  H.,  188 

Kansas  City  (Kans.),  enrollment  statis- 
tics of,  1 7 

Kansas  City  (Mo.),  enrollment  statis- 
tics of,  17;  promotion  in,  28,  29 

Keppel,  F.  p.,  188 

Keyes,  C.  H.,  41  ff. 

Little  Rock,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 
Los  Angeles,  enrollment  statistics  of,  1 7 
Louisville,  enrollment  statistics  of,  1 7 

Manhattan.   See  New  York 
Measurement  of  educational  products, 

207  ff. 
Meek,  C.  S.,  378 
Meriam,  J.  L.,  77  ff. 
Minneapolis,   enrollment   statistics   of, 

17,  18 
Municipal    expenditures,    school    and 

other,    352  ff.;    variability,    354  ff-; 

relationships,  361  ff. 

Nativity,  of  teachers,  loi 

Newark,   enrollment  statistics  of,    17. 

23  f- 
New  Orleans,  enrollment  statistics  of,  1 7 
New  York  City,  promotion  in,  29,  37  ff.; 
elimination  in,  46  ff.;  social  and  eco- 
nomic status  of  high  school  pupils  in, 
69  ff. 
Normal  school  education,  and  efficiency 
inteaching,  77  ff. 


39° 


Index 


Occupation,  choice  of,  in  relation  to 
elimination,  49,  52;  in  relation  to 
studies  taken  for  the  A.  B.  degree, 
190  flf. 

Occupations,  of  parents  of  high-school 
pupils,  69  f.;  of  teachers,  loi  f. 

Omaha,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 

Pasadena,  promotion  in,  29 

Paterson,  promotion  in,  37  flf. 

Payne,  B.  R.,  152  £f. 

Plainfield,  promotion  in,  37  fif. 

Princeton,  individual  courses  of  study 
at,  194;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing" at,  20I  f. 

Private  schools,  and  elimination,  1 1 

Promotion,  26  ff.;  statistics  of,  28  f., 
37  fE.;  and  the  course  of  study,  30  f.; 
and  retardation,  31  f.;  flexibility  in, 
32;  and  elimination,  32  flf.;  of  the  same 
student  in  different  grades,  37  ff.; 
causes  of,  41  ff.;  and  ability,  67  f. 

Pupil  record-card,  252  ff. 

Race,  of  teachers,  loi. 

Reasoning,  ability  of  children  in,  54  ff. 

Record-card,  pupil  cumulative,  25  2  ff. 

Records  and  reports,  in  relation  to  eflfi- 
ciency,  250 

Relationships,  among  various  items  of 
municipal  expenditure,  361  ff.;  among 
various  school  expenditures,  3  25  ff . 

Relationship  between  salaries  of  janitors 
and  salaries  of  teachers,  3 14 

Rental,  family,  in  relation  to  elimina- 
tion, 50,  53;  of  high-school  pupils' 
famiUes,  71  ff. 

Reports,  school  records  and,  250;  par- 
tial, 262;  in  cycles,  262;  uniformity  in, 
263 

Retardation,  5, 8,  26  ff.;  and  promotion, 
31  f.;  incidence  of,  37  ff.;  statistics 
of;  causes  of,  41  ff.   See  Promotion. 


Retention    of   pupils   in   school.     See 

Elimination 
Revenue,  sources  of  city,  365 
Rochester,  promotion  in,  28,  29 
Rural  high  schools,  166  ff. 

Salaries  of  teachers,  83  ff.,  120  ff.,  341, 
346  ff.;  in  relation  to  length  of  educa- 
tion and  length  of  experience,  83  ff . ; 
in  public  and  private  schools,  129  ff.; 
form  for  reporting,  259;  compared 
with  wages  of  artisans,  341;  in  high 
schools  and  elementary  schools,  346  ff . 

San  Francisco,  promotion  in,  29 

Scales  for  measuring  educational  prod- 
ucts, 207  ff. 

Scholarship,  in  relation  to  elimination, 
8,  51,  S3;  in  relation  to  efficiency  in 
teaching,  78  f. 

School  expenditures,  city,  267;  in  rela- 
tion to  other  municipal  expenditures, 
352  ff. 

School  funds,  apportionment  of, 
368  ff. 

School  records  and  reports, 
250 

Secondary  schools,  elimination  in,  46  ff.; 
salaries  of  teachers  in,  83  ff.;  statis- 
tics of  teachers  in,  in  ff . ;  sex-balance 
of  teachers  and  pupils  in,  132  ff.;  size 
of,  165  ff. 

Sex,  and  elimination,  48,  51;  and  teach- 
ers' salaries,  89  ff.,  95  ff.,  120  ff., 
127  ff.;  and  career  as  a  teacher, 
105  f.;  of  teachers  in  relation  to  the 
sex-balance  of  the  enrollment  in  pub- 
lic high  schools,  132  ff. 

Size  of  school,  as  a  factor  in  secondary 
education,  165  ff.;  in  relation  to  the 
community's  support  of  education, 
171  ff. 

Social  status,  of  pupils,  69  ff.;  of  teach- 
ers, 100  ff. 


Index 


391 


Special  supervisors,  107 

Springfield  (Ill.)>  promotion  in,  35 

Springfield  (Mass.),  enrollment  statis- 
tics of,  10,  17,  18,  23  f. 

St.  Joseph,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 

St.  Paul,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 

Stanford,  individual  courses  of  study 
at,  195;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing" at,  201  f. 

Stockton,  promotion  in,  29 

Stone,  C.  W.,  233  ff. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  267  flf. 

Students.  See  Table  of  Contents.  See 
also  Age,  Grade,  Elimination,  Re- 
tardation, Promotion,  etc. 

Study,  teaching  children  how  to,  245  ff. 

Supervision,  division  of  responsibility, 
110;  salaries  of  supervisors,  in 

Supervision  of  special  subjects,  107; 
frequency  of,  108;  distribution  by 
sex,  109 

Teachers.  See  Table  of  Contents.  See 
also  Education,  Experience,  Sex, 
Salary,  etc. 

Tests  of  ability  in  reasoning,  55  ff. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  5,  9,  23,  26,  78,  82, 
89,  132,  16s, 176 

Time  devoted  to  arithmetic  in  relation 
to  result  secured,  238 

Toledo,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 

Transfer  from  school  to  school,  in  rela- 
tion to  retardation,  41, 43 

Trenton,  promotion  in,  29 

Troy,  enrollment  statistics  of,  17 


Unreliability,  calculations  of,  i8  f. 
Updegraff,  H.  297  ff.,  303  ff.,  366  ff. 
Utica,  promotion  in,  29 

Van  DENBimc,  J.  K.,  46  ff.,  70  ff. 

Variability,  of  pupils  of  the  same  grade, 
in  age,  5  f.;  of  cities  with  respect  to 
elimination  by  age,  22  ff.;  of  pupils 
in  reasoning  ability,  54  ff.;  of  salary 
for  teachers  of  the  same  sex,  length  of 
education  and  length  of  experience,  94; 
of  size  of  public  high  schools,  165  ff.; 
of  marks  of  the  same  individual  in 
the  same  subject  in  entrance  exam- 
inations, 178;  of  city  school  expend- 
itures, 278  ff.;  measures  of,  313;  of 
municipal  expenditures,  354  ff. 

Wealth,  in  relation  to  elimination,  50, 53 

Wellesley,  individual  courses  of  study 
at,  196;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing "at,  201  f. 

Wesleyan,  individual  courses  of  study 
at,  197;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing" at,  201  f. 

Wheeling,  promotion  in,  29 

Williams,  individual  courses  of  study 
at,  198;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing" at,  201  f. 

Williamsport,  promotion  in,  35 

Work,  methods  of,  241;  teachers'  knowl- 
edge of  methods  of,  242  ff . 

Yale,  individual  courses  of  study  at, 
199  f.;  specialization  and  "scatter- 
ing "at,  201  f. 


npHE  following   pages   contain   advertisements   of 
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Education:  A  First  Book 

By  E.  L.  THORNDIKE,  Professor  of  Educational 
Psychology  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Cloth,  i2mo,  ix  +  2g2  pages,  $1.25  net 

"In  Professor  Edward  L.  Thorndike's  treatise  on  "Education" 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  wise  philosophy  and  practical  good  sense.  The 
author  expresses  the  hope  that  it  may  prepare  students  in  colleges  and 
normal  schools  to  see  the  significance  of  their  more  specialized  studies 
in  educational  psychology  and  sociology,  methods  of  teaching  and 
class  management,  the  history  of  educational  theory  and  practice  and 
the  applications  of  philosophy  and  ethics  to  education.  For  these 
purposes  the  book  is  admirably  adapted,  but  it  should  have  a  use 
beyond  all  this  in  suggesting  to  teachers,  and  especially  elementary 
teachers  who  are  actually  in  service,  new  methods  of  instruction  and 
new  arrangements  of  courses  more  in  accord  with  modern  ideas  than 
those  that  were  in  vogue  when  they  received  their  training." 

— The  Living  Age, 

"Modestly  offered  as  a  first  effort,  is  a  whole  course  in  teaching." 

— Review  of  Reviews. 

"Contains  a  mine  of  helpful  suggestion  to  any  intelligent  reader." 

— The  Nation. 


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Animal  Intelligence 

EXPERIMENTAL   STUDIES 

By  PROFESSOR  EDWARD  L.  THORNDIKE, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Cloth,  i2mo,  2gy  pages,  $i.6o  net 

In  this  volume  are  brought  together  the  principal  experimental 
studies  of  animal  intelligence  made  by  Professor  Thorndike,  and  a 
discussion  of  the  general  laws  of  animal  intellect  and  behavior,  which 
have  been  demonstrated  by  recent  work  in  animal  psychology.  These 
studies  have  a  twofold  interest.  In  the  first  place  since  they  represent 
the  first  deliberate  and  extended  application  of  the  experimental 
method  in  animal  psychology,  they  are  a  most  useful  introduction  to  the 
later  literature  of  that  subject.  They  mark  the  change  from  books  of 
general  argumentation  on  the  basis  of  common  experience  interpreted 
in  terms  of  the  faculty  psychology,  to  monographs  reporting  detailed 
and  often  highly  technical  experiments  interpreted  in  terms  of  original 
and  acquired  connections  between  situation  and  response. 

The  work  includes  chapters  on  The  Study  of  Consciousness  and  the 
Study  of  Behavior;  Animal  Intelligence;  The  Instinctive  Reactions  of 
Young  Chicks;  The  Psychology  of  Fishes;  The  Mental  Life  of  the 
Monkeys;  Laws  and  Hypotheses  of  Behavior,  and  The  Evolution  of 
the  Human  Intellect. 


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A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

By  GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER,  Professor  of  Educa- 
tional Administration,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. Cloth,  i2mo,  xiv  +  315  pages,  $1.25  net 

This  new  book  by  Professor  Strayer  meets  the  great  and  very  real 
need  for  a  teacher's  professional  book  of  "Theory  arid  Practice," 
which  though  full  of  meat,  can  be  read  in  those  "marginal  minutes" 
which  are  all  that  a  very  large  number  of  teachers  have  for  reading. 

Professor  Strayer  has  had  in  mind  not  so  much  the  specialist  as 
(i)  the  young  teacher,  who  needs  to  get  much  help  in  a  short  time; 
(2)  the  teacher  with  limited  training  to  whom  every  school-room 
problem  is  mountainous;  and  (3)  the  overworked  teacher  who  desires 
to  keep  abreast  of  the  world  in  her  profession,  but  has  not  time  to 
wade  through  morasses  of  display  stock  of  pedagogical  "wisdom." 

For  example:  The  chapter  on  "Study"  ofifers  more  in  a  few  pages 
than  some  entire  books  of  hundreds  of  pages  devoted  to  the  topic. 

The  ever  troublesome  questions  of  inductive  and  deductive  teaching 
are  made  as  clear  as  crystal  in  two  brief  chapters.  Teachers  who  have 
studied  whole  books  on  these  topics  only  to  be  befogged  will  be  sur- 
prised at  their  simplicity  as  given  here. 

"The  book  exhibits  a  sane  interest  in  concrete,  effective  teaching,  and  no  teacher 
can  go  through  it  and  get  its  point  of  view,  and  especially  work  out  the  problems, 
without  being  helped  immensely  thereby." — The  Dial. 

"One  of  the  latest  and  best  books  of  its  kind.  Teachers  should  put  it  into  their 
libraries  not  for  ornament  but  for  use.  The  book  is  a  growth,  not  a  creation;  a 
product  of  the  laboratory  and  classroom,  not  of  midnight  oil  only.  Each  of  its 
nineteen  chapters  deals  with  a  topic  of  practical  value  and  provokes  thought." 

— American  Education. 

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The  Administration  of  Public   Education 
in  the  United  States 

By  SAMUEL  TRAIN  DUTTON,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
School  Administration  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  and  Superintendent  of  the  College  Schools. 
Author  of  "Social  Phases  of  Education,"  "School  Manage- 
ment," etc.,  and  DAVID  SNEDDEN,  Ph.D.,  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  State  of  Massachusetts.  Author  of 
"School  Reports  and  School  Efficiency,"  etc. 

New  Edition,  cloth,  8mo,  $2.00  net 
"The  careful  and  scholarly  study  of  the  administration  of  education 
in  the  United  States  by  my  colleagues.  Professors  Dutton  and  Sned- 
den,  is  a  valuable  and  timely  contribution  to  the  literature  of  educa- 
tion. In  a  democratic  State,  it  is  of  first  importance  that  the  relation 
of  the  State  to  the  organs  and  agencies  of  culture  and  enlightenment 
be  clearly  defined  and  well  understood.  The  wise  and  truly  representa- 
tive organization  and  administration  of  education  is  only  a  little  less 
important  than  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the  educational 
process  itself. 

"  By  far  the  largest  part,  and  an  increasingly  large  part,  of  the  educa- 
tional activity  of  the  United  States  is  governmental.  It  is  this  govern- 
mental educational  activity  with  which  the  present  volume  deals.  It 
brings  together,  in  considerable  part  for  the  first  time,  a  large  mass  of 
carefully  ordered  material  bearing  upon  the  evolution  and  present 
condition  of  educational  administration,  and  it  presents,  in  a  form 
valuable  either  for  study  or  for  reference,  the  present  state  of  educa- 
tional administration  in  the  United  States,  so  far  as  that  administra- 
tion is  governmental  in  form." — Nicholas  Murray  Butler. 


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A  History  of  Education  Before  the 
Middle  Ages 

By  FRANK  PIERREPONT  GRAVES,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
of  the  History  of  Education  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 

Cloth,  i2mo,  $1.10  net 

This  book  gives  a  comprehensive  account  of  the  history  of  education 
before  the  day  of  the  monastic  schools.  It  presents  sufficient  material 
to  mark  the  most  significant  movements  and  discloses  the  underlying 
principles  without  entering  into  unnecessary  detail.  All  interpreta- 
tions are  based  upon  historical  data  collected  from  the  sources,  and 
direct  quotation  is  liberally  used  throughout. 


"Professor  Graves  has  taken  the  method  of  procedure,  at  once  most  natural  and 
most  philosophical,  of  studying  each  stage  with  a  view  to  progress." — The  Outlook. 

"A  book  which  gives  evidence  on  every  page  of  ripe  scholarship,  breadth  of  view, 
and  keen  discrimination  between  significant  things  and  mere  detail." 

— The  School  Review. 

"Professor  Graves  does  well  to  give  the  profession  the  fruit  of  his  abundant 
knowledge  in  a  scholarly  text-book  and  reference  work,  complete  without  being 
tedious,  condensed  without  being  lifeless." — Journal  of  Education. 


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History  of  Education  During  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  Transition  to  Modern 
Times 

By  FRANK  PIERREPONT  GRAVES,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
the  History  of  Education  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 

Cloth,  i2mo,  $1.10  net 

This  volume  is  a  continuation  of  the  ''History  of  Education  before 
the  Middle  Ages."  Without  dwelling  upon  matters  remotely  related 
to  the  educational  problems  of  to-day,  an  accurate  picture  is  afforded 
of  educational  history  between  the  sixth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries. 
The  sources  are  extensively  quoted,  and  selected  lists  of  supplementary 
reading  are  given  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  The  book  is  suitable  as 
a  text  or  a  work  or  reference. 

"In  the  same  spirit  of  careful  research  and  open-minded  discussion  that  marked 
the  first  part  of  his  work." — The  Independent. 

"The  present  volume  is  not  only  as  good  as,  but  better  than,  the  previous  one. 
The  work  is  conspicuous  among  histories  of  education  as  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  interesting."— /o;^r«(i/  of  Educational  Psychology. 

"He  has  made  of  dry  historical  facts  a  narrative  full  of  interest,  one  that  touches 
the  life,  politics,  religion,  and  philosophy  of  the  times." — Pedagogical  Seminary. 

A  History  of  Education  During  Modern 
Times 

By  FRANK  PIERREPONT  GRAVES,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
the  History  of  Education  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 

In  preparation 
In  continuation  of  the  two  preceding  volumes,  this  work  will  cover 
the  history  of  education  from  the  days  of  Rousseau  and  the  French 
Revolution  to  the  present  time. 


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Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries 

By  FRANK  PIERREPONT  GRAVES,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
the  History  of  Education  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 

Cloth,  i2mo,  $1.10  net 

This  book  furnishes  a  popular  account  of  the  life  and  work  of  the 
men  who,  during  the  past  three  centuries,  have  introduced  various 
innovations  and  reforms  into  modern  education.  While  the  facts  of 
biography  are  narrated  somewhat  at  length,  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  eliminate  everything  that  does  not  have  some  bearing  upon  the 
contributions  of  the  educator  under  consideration. 

"As  history  is  largely  a  matter  of  biography,  and  as  institutions  are  usually  the 
lengthened  shadow  of  a  man,  so  the  historic  trend  of  education  can  be  indicated  well 
enough  for  the  casual  reader  by  an  intelligent  summary  of  the  work  of  a  few^  great 
educators  together  with  comments  on  the  tendencies  and  interrelations  of  that  work. 
'Professor  Graves  has  gotten  up  such  a  summary  in  his  brief  volume,  in  which  he  has 
judiciously  selected  and  clearly  stated  his  facts.  His  comments  on  these  facts  are 
illuminative  and  his  comments  would  seem  to  be  well  founded." — Boston  Evening 
Transcript. 

"The  thoroughly  painstaking  method  of  Professor  Graves  is  evident  on  every 
page  of  these  splendidly  written  books.  A  scientific  and  scholarly  attitude  combined 
with  common-sense  makes  these  by  all  odds  the  most  practical  te.xt-books  yet 
published  in  this  field." — Prof.  W.  G.  Clippinger,  of  Ottenbein  University. 

"The  social  settings,  dialectic  methods,  and  ultimate  achievements  of  nearly  a 
score  of  illustrious  world  reformers  are  here  brilliantly  outlined." 

— The  Philadelphia  North  American. 


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A  Cyclopedia  of  Education 

Edited  by  PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  History 
of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University;  Au- 
thor of  "A  Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Education," 
"Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education,"  etc. 

TO  BE  COMPLETED  IN  FIVE  LARGE  OCTAVO  VOLUMES. 
SOLD  ONLY  BY  SUBSCRIPTION,  EACH  VOLUME,  $3.00  NET. 

WHAT  NOTED  EDUCATORS  SAY  OF  THE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education: 

"The  appearance  of  the  first  volume  undoubtedly  marks  an  epoch  in  the  develop- 
ment of  our  educational  literature.  Its  great  value  and  usefulness  are  immediately 
apparent.  I  can  see  at  once  that  it  will  save  me  a  vast  amount  of  labor  by  its  concise 
and  competent  treatment  of  a  large  number  of  topics  with  which  I  have  to  do  almost 
daily  in  one  way  and  another.  A  number  of  the  articles  to  which  I  have  already 
referred  are  admirable  in  their  clearness,  comprehensiveness,  and  balance.  The 
tables,  diagrams,  illustrations,  and  particularly  the  well-selected  bibliographical 
references,  will  be  found  extremely  useful. 

"Both  the  editor  and  the  publishers  are  to  be  congratulated  on  the  appearance 
of  a  publication  so  attractive,  so  valuable,  and  so  well  suited  to  supply  an  urgent 
need." 

Ell  WOOD  P.  Cubberley,  Professor  of  Education,  Leland  Stanford  University: 

"I  have  just  finished  a  careful  examination  of  Volume  I  of  your  new  Cyclopedia 
of  Education.  I  have  been  much  interested  in  its  production,  and  expected  much, 
but  it  exceeds  my  expectation.  You  have  done  a  fine  piece  of  work  in  organizing 
our  present  knowledge  in  the  field  and  the  work  will  be  of  the  greatest  service  to  all. 
Sets  of  it  ought  to  be  in  every  school  library,  city  and  country,  and  in  every  public 
library,  even  though  small.  Accept  my  congratulations  on  the  issue  of  the  first 
volume." 

J.  H.  Collins,  Superintendent  City  Schools,  Springfield,  Illinois: 

"I  have  received  the  first  volume  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  Education  edited  by  Paul 
Monroe,  and  am  highly  pleased  with  it.  To  one  who  is  interested  in  problems  of 
education  it  is  a  work  of  great  value  and  interest.  I  have  already  studied  many  of 
the  leading  articles  of  Volume  I,  and  await  with  interest  the  arrival  of  Volume  II." 

SEND  FOR  LARGE  PROSPECTUS  AND  SPECIAL  LIBERAL  OFFER  TO 

TEACHERS 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


JUL  2  6  1960 
MftR  2  7  1962 
APR  3      «P''- 


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